4.3.2. Theories of emotions

Problems of the origin and functional significance of emotions in human and animal behavior are the subject of constant research and debate. Currently, there are several biological theories of emotions.

Darwin's biological theory. One of the first to highlight the regulatory role of emotions in the behavior of mammals was the outstanding naturalist Charles Darwin. His analysis of the emotional expressive movements of animals gave grounds to consider these movements as a unique manifestation of instinctive actions that act as biologically significant signals for representatives not only of their own, but also of other animal species. These emotional signals (fear, threat, joy) and the accompanying facial and pantomimic movements have adaptive significance. Many of them appear from the moment of birth and are defined as innate emotional reactions.

Each of us is familiar with facial expressions and pantomimes that accompany emotional experiences. By the expression of a person’s face and the tension of his body, one can quite accurately determine what he is experiencing: fear, anger, joy or other feelings.

So, Darwin was the first to draw attention to the special role in the manifestation of emotions played by the muscular system of the body and, first of all, by those parts of it that are involved in organizing body movements and facial expressions specific to most emotions. In addition, he pointed out the importance of feedback in the regulation of emotions, emphasizing that the strengthening of emotions is associated with their free external expression. On the contrary, suppressing all external signs of emotion weakens the power of emotional experience.

However, in addition to external manifestations of emotions, during emotional arousal, changes in heart rate, breathing, muscle tension, etc. are observed. All this indicates that emotional experiences are closely related to vegetative changes in the body. It was these observations that gave rise to the first widely known theory of emotions - the James-Lange theory.

James–Lange theory- one of the first theories that tried to connect emotions and vegetative changes in the human body that accompany emotional experiences. She assumes that after perceiving an event that caused an emotion, a person experiences this emotion as a feeling of physiological changes in his own body, i.e. physical sensations are the emotion itself. As James stated: “We are sad because we cry, because we are angry. because we strike, we are afraid because we tremble.”

The theory has been repeatedly criticized. First of all, it was noted that the initial position itself, according to which each emotion corresponds to its own set of physiological changes, is erroneous. It has been experimentally shown that the same physiological changes can accompany different emotional experiences. These shifts are too nonspecific in nature and therefore cannot themselves determine the qualitative originality and specificity of emotional experiences. In addition, vegetative changes in the human body have a certain inertia, i.e. may proceed more slowly and not have time to follow the range of feelings that a person is sometimes able to experience almost simultaneously (for example, fear and anger or fear and joy).

Cannon's thalamic theory– Barda. This theory, as the central link responsible for the experience of emotions, identified one of the formations of the deep structures of the brain - the thalamus (visual thalamus). According to this theory, when perceiving events that cause emotions, nerve impulses first enter the thalamus, where the impulse flows are divided: some of them enter the cerebral cortex, where the subjective experience of emotion (fear, joy, etc.) arises. The other part enters the hypothalamus, which, as has been said many times, is responsible for autonomic changes in the body. Thus, this theory singled out the subjective experience of emotion as an independent link and correlated it with the activity of the cerebral cortex.

Lindsley's activation theory. The activating reticular formation of the brainstem plays a central role in producing emotions in this theory. Activation resulting from excitation of neurons of the reticular formation performs the main emotiogenic function. According to this theory, an emotiogenic stimulus excites neurons in the brain stem, which send impulses to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cortex. Thus, a pronounced emotional reaction occurs with diffuse activation of the cortex with simultaneous activation of the hypothalamic centers of the diencephalon. The main condition for the appearance of emotional reactions is the presence of activating influences from the reticular formation when cortical control over the limbic system is weakened. The putative activating mechanism transforms these impulses into behavior accompanied by emotional arousal. This theory, of course, does not explain all the mechanisms of physiological support of emotions, but it allows us to connect the concepts of activation and emotional arousal with some characteristic changes in the bioelectrical activity of the brain.

Biological theory of P.K. Anokhin, like Darwin's theory, it emphasizes the evolutionary adaptive nature of emotions, their regulatory function in ensuring behavior and adaptation of the organism to the environment. According to this theory, in the behavior of living beings, two main stages can be conventionally distinguished, which, alternating, form the basis of life activity: the stage of formation of needs and the stage of their satisfaction. Each stage is accompanied by its own emotional experiences: the first, mainly negative, the second, on the contrary, positive. Indeed, need satisfaction is usually associated with a feeling of pleasure. An unmet need is always a source of discomfort. Thus, from a biological point of view, emotional sensations have become established as a kind of tool that keeps the process of adaptation of the body to the environment within optimal boundaries and prevents the destructive nature of the lack or excess of any factors for its life.

So, the essence of P.K. Anokhin’s theory is as follows: a positive emotional state (for example, the satisfaction of a need) arises only if the feedback from the results of the action performed exactly coincides with the expected result, i.e. action acceptor. Thus, a positive emotion associated with satisfying a need reinforces the correctness of any behavioral act if its result achieves the goal, i.e. benefits by providing adaptation. On the contrary, a discrepancy between the obtained result and expectations immediately leads to anxiety (i.e., to a negative emotion) and to further search, which can ensure the achievement of the required result, and, consequently, to a full-fledged emotion of satisfaction. From Anokhin’s point of view, in all emotions, from the crudest lower ones to the highest socially conditioned ones, the same physiological architecture of the functional system is used.

Information theory of emotions by P.V. Simonov introduces the concept of information into the range of analyzed phenomena. Emotions are closely related to the information we receive from the world around us. Usually emotions arise due to an unexpected event for which a person was not prepared. At the same time, emotion does not arise if we encounter a situation with a sufficient supply of necessary information. Negative emotions arise most often due to unpleasant information and especially when there is insufficient information, positive emotions - when receiving sufficient information, especially when it turned out to be better than expected.

From the point of view of the author of this theory, P.V. Simonov, emotion is a reflection by the brain of humans and animals of some actual need (its quality and magnitude), as well as the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience. In its most general form, the rule for the emergence of emotions can be represented as a structural formula:

where E is emotion, its degree, quality and sign; P – strength and quality of current need; (In – Is) – assessment of the likelihood (possibility) of satisfying a need based on innate and ontogenetic experience; In – information about the means predictably necessary to satisfy the need; IS – information about the funds available to the subject at the moment.

From the “formula of emotions” it is clear that a small probability of satisfying a need leads to the emergence of negative emotions. On the contrary, an increase in the probability of achieving the goal, i.e. satisfying a need in comparison with a previously existing forecast leads to the emergence of positive emotions.

This theory brings to the fore the evaluative function of emotions, which is always the result of the interaction of two factors: demand (need) and supply (the ability to satisfy this need).

The theory of differential emotions. The central tenet of this theory is the idea of ​​the existence of a certain number of basic emotions, each of which has motivational and phenomenological properties unique to it. Basic emotions (joy, fear, anger, etc.) lead to various internal experiences and various external manifestations and can interact with each other, weakening or strengthening one another.

Each emotion includes three interrelated components: 1) neural activity of the brain and peripheral nervous system (neurological component); 2) the activity of striated muscles, providing facial and pantomimic expressiveness and feedback in the “body/face-brain” system (expressive component); 3) subjective emotional experience (subjective component). Each of the components has a certain autonomy and can exist independently of the others (Izard, 1980).

Unfortunately, the theory of differential emotions does not provide a satisfactory explanation of how this or that emotion is actualized, what are the external and internal conditions for its awakening. In addition, the disadvantage of this theory is the vagueness in the definition of the basic emotions themselves. Their number ranges from four to ten. Evolutionary and cross-cultural data are used to identify basic emotions. The presence of similar emotions in apes and humans, as well as in people raised in different cultures, argues for the existence of a number of basic emotions. However, the ability of emotional processes to interact and form complex complexes of emotional response makes it difficult to clearly identify fundamental basic emotions.

Neurocultural theory of emotion was developed by P. Ekman in the 70s of the 20th century. As in the theory of differential emotions, its starting points are the idea of ​​six main (basic) emotions. According to this theory, expressive manifestations of basic emotions (anger, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust, happiness) are universal and practically insensitive to the influence of environmental factors. In other words, all people use their facial muscles in almost the same way when experiencing basic emotions. Each of them is associated with a genetically determined program for the movement of facial muscles.

Nevertheless, the norms of social control accepted in society determine the rules for the expression of emotions. For example, the Japanese usually mask their negative emotional experiences by skillfully demonstrating a positive attitude towards events. The mechanism of social control of the manifestation of emotions is evidenced by the so-called short-term facial expressions. They are recorded during special filming and reflect a person’s real attitude to the situation, alternating with socially normative facial expressions. The duration of such genuine expressive reactions is 300–500 ms. Thus, in a situation of social control, people are able to control facial expressions in accordance with accepted norms and traditions of education.

From all of the above it follows that there is no single generally accepted physiological theory of emotions. Each of the theories allows us to understand only some aspects of the psychophysiological mechanisms of the functioning of the emotional-need sphere of a person, bringing to the fore the problems of: adaptation to the environment (Darwin’s, Anokhin’s theories), brain support and physiological indicators of emotional experiences (thalamic and activation theories, Ekman’s theory), vegetative and homeostatic components of emotions (James-Lange theory), the influence of awareness on emotional experiences (Simonov’s theory), the specifics of basic emotions (the theory of differential emotions).

The variety of approaches that are not consistent with each other complicates the reconstruction of a holistic picture and indicates that the emergence of a single logically consistent theory of emotions is apparently a matter of the distant future.

Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

Tula State University

Department of Psychology

Course work

in psychology

"Theories of Emotions"

Completed by student gr. 430481:

Rodicheva A. S.

Checked by the teacher:

Matsuk M. A.

Tula 2009.

Introduction.

1. The first attempt to explain the nature of emotions

2. Charles Darwin's theory

3. Biological theory of emotions

4. Freud's psychoanalytic theory

5. Motivational theory of emotions R.U. Lipera

6. Cognitive theories of emotion

7. Plutchik’s adaptation theory

8. The theory of differential emotions K.E. Ezard

9. Theory P.V. Simonova

10. Theory of A.N. Leontyev

Bibliography

Introduction

We all constantly experience different emotions: joy, sadness, sadness, etc. The class of emotions also includes feelings, affects, passions, and stress. Emotions help us understand each other better. People belonging to different nations are able to accurately perceive human facial expressions. This proves the fact that it proves the innate nature of emotions. But, despite the fact that emotions constantly accompany us through life, few people know why at some point in time we react one way and not another to this or that event. Let's try to trace the development of psychological theories of emotions. Purely psychological theories of emotions that do not address physiological and other related issues do not actually exist, and ideas taken from different areas of scientific research usually coexist in theories of emotions. This is not accidental, since emotion as a psychological phenomenon is difficult to separate from the processes occurring in the body, and often the psychological and physiological characteristics of emotional states not only accompany each other, but serve as an explanation for each other. In addition, a number of theoretical issues, for example, the question of classification and basic parameters of emotional states, cannot be resolved without referring to the physiological correlates of emotions. Every emotional state is accompanied by numerous physiological changes in the body. Throughout the history of the development of this area of ​​psychological knowledge, attempts have been made more than once to connect physiological changes in the body with certain emotions and to show that the complexes of organic signs accompanying various emotional processes are really different.

1. The first attempt to explain the nature of emotions

Ancient Chinese teachings about mental phenomena were built on the basis of organismic ideas that arose in tribal society and, in one form or another, continued to exist in the traditional mentality. The Chinese viewed the human being as a part of the cosmos, as an organism within an organism. It was believed that the mental structure of the human body has the same number of structural levels as the entire cosmos, the internal states of a person are determined by his relationships with the outside world, and certain mental phenomena resonate with what is happening on the corresponding planes of the universe.

The mental component of a person was expressed in ancient China in the concept of xin - “heart”. However, the Chinese did not adhere to a strict heart-centric concept of the psyche. There was also the idea that the heart was one of the organs in the whole organism, which corresponded to certain mental correlates. The heart is only the most important of them; in it, as in the “core” of the organism, the resultant mental interactions are concentrated, determining their general direction and structure. Therefore, in the Chinese language, many characters denoting emotional categories contain the character “heart”.

The hieroglyph qin, which denotes the sensory-emotional sphere of a person, also has this semantic determinant. The extreme manifestation of emotions, efficiency, are “passions, desires”, denoted by the hieroglyph yu, which has a double spelling – with and without “heart”.

These sensory-emotional concepts are often contrasted with the concept of xing (“essence, nature, nature, character [of a person]”), also denoted by a hieroglyph that contains the sign “heart”. The latter suggests that this opposition is not ontological and is carried out on a single basis. The contrast between “essence” (nature-sin) and “sensuality” (emotions-tsin, desires - yu) is “what lies on the heart,” or more precisely, what happens in the mental organism, considered in the context of the structure-forming function of the heart.

The specific relationship between human “nature” and “desires” is discussed in “Li Ji” (“Notes on Ritual”) in the chapter “Yue Ji” (“Notes on Music”). By its origin, human “nature” is unemotional, “pure” of all passions. They arise in a person when he comes into contact with objects of the external world in the process of cognition of them. Then the peace of “nature” is disturbed, it begins to move, and feelings of “love, attraction” and “hatred, disgust” arise. These feelings can be so strong that under their influence a person can lose the pristine purity of his nature and follow the path of vice.

Despite the fact that “nature” is given to a person by Heaven, in relation to the outside world, when it comes to the perception of the surrounding reality, it acts as a passive, yin, principle. Being “spoilt” by the presence of harmful passions, “nature” becomes an active, yang, principle, the cause of “all obscene deeds.”

A similar relationship between the natural essence of man and his sensory-emotional sphere is given in “Xunzi”. The main difference is that this text gives a more optimistic view of the meaning of sensory manifestations in human life. If you have a “heartfelt understanding,” feelings allow you to navigate the world around you and carry out proper activities.

It is important to emphasize that in “Li Chi” and “Xun Tzu” mental phenomena are considered as a product of the relationship between the “nature” of man and the “things” of the external world, i.e. as something mediating their interactions. This makes it possible to apply the scheme of subject-object relations, which was used to clarify the meanings of trigrams and virtues-de, when reconstructing the ancient Chinese theory of emotions. At the same time, we must remember that the “nature” of man as a subject is not hypostatized by the ancient Chinese, but represents only a deeper state of the mental organism than emotionality.

This approach is intended to show that the structure of the sensory-emotional sphere in ancient Chinese theory is described by trigrams. The ideal would be to find a list of emotions that correlates with the eight trigrams. But there is no such thing. However, even in heterogeneous lists of emotions scattered across different texts, their original systematicity is visible, based on which it is possible to reconstruct a basic set of emotions that is not inferior in its harmony to later theories of emotions.

2. Charles Darwin's theory

A later and scientifically based theory belongs to Charles Darwin. Having published the book “The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals” in 1872, Charles Darwin showed the evolutionary path of development of emotions and substantiated the origin of their physiological manifestations. The essence of his ideas is that emotions are either useful or represent only remnants (rudiments) of various expedient reactions that were developed during the process of evolution in the struggle for existence. An angry person blushes, breathes heavily and clenches his fists because in primitive history, any anger led people to a fight, and this required vigorous muscle contractions and, therefore, increased breathing and blood circulation, ensuring muscle work. He explained the sweating of hands in fear by the fact that in the ape-like ancestors of humans, this reaction in case of danger made it easier to grab tree branches.

Thus, Darwin proved that in the development and manifestation of emotions there is no impassable gap between humans and animals. In particular, he showed that anthropoids and children born blind have much in common in the external expression of emotions.

3. Biological theories of emotions

Theory P.K. Anokhina.

Anokhin considered emotional states “as a natural fact of nature, as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world.” In doing so, he relied on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. He argued that the question boils down only to what, in fact, is the biological and physiological usefulness of emotions in the implementation of body functions. Anokhin argued that in the process of evolution, emotional sensations became entrenched as a kind of tool that keeps the process within its optimal boundaries. Thus, emotions prevent the destructive nature of the deficiency and excessive information about any factors in the life of the body.

The essence of his biological theory is that it states that a positive emotional state of any need arises only if the information about the action taken reflects all the components of the positive result.

Duffy's theory.

Duffy was based on the teachings of Wundt and Spencer, and believed that all human behavior can be explained using the terms of a “single phenomenon” - organismic excitation. Duffy also argued that behavior can change only relative to two vectors: direction, intensity.

Directionality is the selectivity of a response, which is based on the expectations, goals and relationships of the organism with its environment (perceived stimuli emanating from the environment). Depending on the meaning of the situation (motivating, threatening), the individual can either obey it or avoid it. Intensity is a consequence of the general excitability of the body, the mobilization of energy.

Emotions are considered as a product of evolution, an adaptive factor in the life of animals. Emotion acts as a kind of tool that optimizes the life process and thereby contributes to the preservation of both the individual and the entire species. The emergence of needs leads to the emergence of negative emotions. They play a mobilizing role, contributing to the fastest satisfaction of needs in the optimal way. When feedback confirms the achievement of the programmed result - satisfaction of the need, a positive emotion arises. It acts as the ultimate reinforcing factor. Being fixed in memory, it participates in the future in the motivational process, influencing the decision to choose a way to satisfy the need. If the result obtained is not consistent with the program, emotional anxiety arises, leading to the search for other, more successful ways to achieve the goal. Repeated satisfaction of needs, colored by positive emotion, contributes to learning the corresponding activity, and repeated failures in obtaining a programmed result cause inhibition of ineffective activity and the search for new, more successful ways to achieve the goal.

Information theory of P.V.Simonov

Emotions are a response to a lack (deficit) or excess (surplus) of information required to satisfy an actual need. The author proposed a structural formula of emotions:

· E− emotion, its degree, quality and sign;

· f− sign of the function;

· P− strength and quality of current need;

· ( In − Is) − assessment of the likelihood (possibility) of satisfying a need based on innate and ontogenetic experience;

· In− information (necessary) about the means predicted to be necessary to satisfy the need;

· Is− information (existing) about the funds available to the subject at the moment;

· ... − ellipsis means a number of factors (known and unknown) that can affect the specific values ​​of the parameters (strength, sign, quality) of emotion. These include individual (typological) characteristics of the subject, time reserve for reaction and decision-making, needs, etc. Such additional factors “determine only variations in the infinite variety of emotions, while necessary And sufficient There are always two and only two factors: the need and the probability (possibility) of its satisfaction.”

In a simplified version, the formula looks like this:

From the last formula it follows:

1) Having the necessary information to satisfy the current need, the subject does not experience emotions

There is no corresponding emotion (E = 0):

· in the absence of need (P = 0)

· with full awareness (In = Is, when In - Is = 0)

2) The emotion is negative when there is a lack of information (In > Is);

3) The emotion is positive when there is redundancy of information (In< Ис)

Sometimes the information received itself carries an emotional charge, as it evokes a painful or dramatic memory of a previous experience. This can further intensify the emotion generated by the new situation the person is faced with.

Spiesman's experiments.

In an experiment by Spiesman and his colleagues, it was shown that negative emotional reactions are observed most often due to unpleasant information and due to insufficient information. Positive emotions arose when sufficient information was received, especially if it was expected. Four groups of subjects were shown a film about how an Australian tribe performed a rite of passage for teenagers. The operation consisted of cutting the surface of the penis along its entire length with a sharp stone, while the teenager was held tightly by four adults. All four displays were carried out differently.

Group 1 watched the film without sound.

Group 2 listened to a commentary spoken in a pathetic tone, emphasizing the cruelty and traumatism of such practices.

Group 3 received a comment that emphasized the normality of the scene and the insignificance of the injury.

Group 4 received a neutral comment. who objectively described the details of the various phases of the practice.

According to the results of recording heart rate and galvanic skin response, a moderate reaction was observed in groups 3 and 4, and a strong reaction in groups 2 and 1

The biological theory of emotions (P.K. Anokhin) postulates: positive
emotions arise in connection with the achievement of a successful result and consolidation
represent the behavioral act leading to this result. Negative
emotions inhibit unsuccessful behavioral acts and direct the body to
search for new adaptive actions.
The information theory of emotions (P.V. Simonov) states: “Emotion is
reflection by the brain of the strength of need and probable cognitive results
tats that are expressed in three forms of thinking.
Forms of thinking are: 1) judgment; 2) inference; 3) I understand
tie. The patterns of relationships between these forms of thinking are studied
logic says. By studying the forms of thinking, logic is abstracted from the concrete
the content of thoughts contained in these forms, it establishes general
laws and principles of achieving the truth of the knowledge that is derived
from other reliable knowledge. Psychology studies patterns
creative thinking leading to new cognitive results,
to the discovery of new knowledge.
According to the predominant content, mental activity is subsection
falls on: 1) practical; 2) artistic and 3) scientific.
The structural unit of practical thinking is action, and
communicative unit signal.
In artistic thinking, the structural unit is the image, and
communicative unit symbol. In scientific thinking, accordingly
concept and sign.
Mental activity can be carried out through various
nal operating procedures.
Algorithmic thinking is carried out in accordance with the guidelines
a defined sequence of elementary operations necessary for resolving
solving problems of this class.
Heuristic thinking - creative solution of non-standard problems.
Discursive thinking (rational) thinking that is rational
character, based on a system of inferences, having a follower
a number of logical links, each of which is determined by the previous one
and determines the next link. Discursive thinking leads to
inferential knowledge.
In the historical development of thinking and in the development of the child’s thinking, once
There are three successive stages of types of thinking: 1) visually
effective (sensorimotor); 2) visual; 3) abstracto
rhetic.
Taking place according to general laws, the thinking of different people differs in
individual characteristics: degree of independence, criticality,
consistency, flexibility, depth and speed, different ratios
analysis and synthesis analytical or synthetic thinking in
divid.
General patterns of thinking
Thinking is the continuous interaction of a thinking subject with
object of knowledge. This interaction is always carried out in order to
solving a problem, it is based on analysis and synthesis and the
results in a new generalization. Thus, it can be considered
that problematic, analysis, synthesis and generalization are common psycho
logical patterns of thinking.
Problematic thinking. Thinking always arises in connection with a decision
any problem, and the problem itself arises from a problematic situation.
A problematic situation is a circumstance in which a person
encounters something new, incomprehensible from the point of view of existing knowledge
ny. This situation is characterized by the emergence of a certain
tive barrier, difficulties that must be overcome in order to achieve
tate thinking. In problematic situations, such goals always arise for
achievement of which available means, methods and knowledge turns out to be

not enough.
When encountering facts of crime, the investigator usually faces
with a problematic situation. Initially he has at his disposal
just some facts that encourage the search, but are insufficient
accurate for solving a crime.
A problem is a special type of question, the answer to which does not contain
lives in our experience and knowledge and therefore requires appropriate practice
tical and theoretical actions. The problem focuses our attention
mania for insufficiency or absence of knowledge (this is knowledge about ignorance
NI).
The problem is the awareness of the need for new knowledge. Not any
mental activity is the solution to the problem. For example, solving
task in a way known to us, we carry out mental activity
ity, but we do not solve the problem. Knowledge, discovery of new, as yet unknown
known aspects of an object are always carried out through relationships, mutual
connections in which these properties are manifested.
Thinking is the knowledge of what is not given directly, but is found
is given in a certain relation to what is given.
Interaction between analysis and synthesis. Every act of thinking, every thought
literal operations are based on analysis and synthesis. As is known, the basics
The main principle of higher nervous activity is the principle of analysis and
synthesis. Thinking as a function of the brain is also based on this principle.
All stages of the thinking process are based on analysis and synthesis.
Any search for an answer to any question requires analysis and synthesis in
their various connections (derived from analysis and synthesis by mental
operations are abstraction and generalization).
Analysis - identifying those aspects of the object that are essential for re
solving this problem; this is the identification of the structure of the object under study, its
structures, breaking down a complex phenomenon into simple elements, separating
essential from non-essential.
Analysis gives an answer to the question: which part of the whole has a certain
new signs. For example, when analyzing traces of a crime, an investigator
highlights only those that have evidentiary value.
The results of the analysis are combined and synthesized.
Synthesis is a combination of elements, parts, parties based on the established
identification of connections between them that are significant in a certain respect.
The main mechanism of thinking, its general pattern, is
analysis through synthesis: identifying new properties in an object (analysis) osu
is realized through its correlation (synthesis) with other objects. In pro
In the process of thinking, the object of knowledge is constantly included in new connections
and because of this it appears in ever new qualities that are recorded in
new concepts; from the object, thus, everything is taken out
new content; it’s as if he turns around differently every time
side, new properties are revealed in it.
Analysis and synthesis, mutually transforming into each other, provide continuous
jerky movement of thought towards deeper and deeper knowledge of the essence
phenomena. The process of cognition begins with the primary synthesis of perception
undivided whole (phenomenon, situation). Further based on the analysis
secondary synthesis is carried out. Gaining new knowledge about this
scrap, and this cognized whole again acts as a basis for further
deep analysis, etc.
Analysis is the identification of such properties (sides) of an object that have
essential for subsequent synthesis and generalization. Wherein
such patterns of thinking as selectivity of election appear
separate identification of one-dimensional aspects of an object and reflexivity
control over the course of the thought process (a person’s reasoning with
oneself), self-report of thinking to oneself. When analyzing
events, a special kind of analytical thinking arises
nia anticipation anticipation of the possible onset of new events
ty, foreseeing the possible results of certain actions. Method

the ability to imagine possible scenarios for the development of events, possible ways
solving the problem of divergent thinking.
Generalization of thinking. Thinking is carried out with the aim of knowing those
or other essential properties of an object, in order to obtain knowledge. Su
a real property is always common to a given group of homogeneous
objects (but not every general property is essential). To the decision
When studying a specific task, we use generalized knowledge, general
rules.
In the process of thinking, the individual is always considered as concrete
expression of the general.

A later and scientifically based theory belongs to Charles Darwin. Having published the book “The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals” in 1872, Charles Darwin showed the evolutionary path of development of emotions and substantiated the origin of their physiological manifestations. The essence of his ideas is that emotions are either useful or represent only remnants (rudiments) of various expedient reactions that were developed during the process of evolution in the struggle for existence. An angry person blushes, breathes heavily and clenches his fists because in primitive history, any anger led people to a fight, and this required vigorous muscle contractions and, therefore, increased breathing and blood circulation, ensuring muscle work. He explained the sweating of hands in fear by the fact that in the ape-like ancestors of humans, this reaction in case of danger made it easier to grab tree branches.

Thus, Darwin proved that in the development and manifestation of emotions there is no impassable gap between humans and animals. In particular, he showed that anthropoids and children born blind have much in common in the external expression of emotions.

Biological theories of emotion

Theory P.K. Anokhina.

Anokhin considered emotional states “as a natural fact of nature, as a product of evolution, as an adaptive factor in the life of the animal world.” In doing so, he relied on Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. He argued that the question boils down only to what, in fact, is the biological and physiological usefulness of emotions in the implementation of body functions. Anokhin argued that in the process of evolution, emotional sensations became entrenched as a kind of tool that keeps the process within its optimal boundaries. Thus, emotions prevent the destructive nature of the deficiency and excessive information about any factors in the life of the body.

The essence of his biological theory is that it states that a positive emotional state of any need arises only if the information about the action taken reflects all the components of the positive result.

Duffy's theory.

Duffy was based on the teachings of Wundt and Spencer, and believed that all human behavior can be explained using the terms of a “single phenomenon” - organismic excitation. Duffy also argued that behavior can change only relative to two vectors: direction, intensity.

Directionality is the selectivity of a response, which is based on the expectations, goals and relationships of the organism with its environment (perceived stimuli emanating from the environment). Depending on the meaning of the situation (motivating, threatening), the individual can either obey it or avoid it. Intensity is a consequence of the general excitability of the body, the mobilization of energy.

Duffy considered the measure of intensity to be “the amount of energy released from the tissues of the body.” Duffy considered emotions as a point, or as a set of points on a scale of arousal, therefore, in his theory, the discreteness of emotions can only be considered in the context of intensity.

Theory of W. James - G. Lange

The James-Lange theory is a theory put forward independently by the American philosopher and psychologist W. James and the Danish physician C. G. Lange (1880-90s). According to the James-Lange theory, the emergence of emotions is caused by changes caused by external influences, both in the voluntary motor sphere and in the sphere of involuntary acts of cardiac, vascular, and secretory activity. The totality of sensations associated with these changes is an emotional experience. According to James, “We are sad because we weep; we are afraid because we tremble; we are joyful because we laugh.” If James associated emotions with a wide range of peripheral changes, then Lange associated them only with the vascular-motor system: the state of innervation and the lumen of blood vessels. Thus, peripheral organic changes, which were usually considered as a consequence of emotions, were declared to be their cause. The Dems-Lange theory was an attempt to turn emotions into an object accessible to natural study.

This theory, complete from the theoretical side and quite developed, was captivating for two reasons: on the one hand, it really gave a visible natural scientific, biological justification for emotional reactions, and on the other (it did not have the disadvantages of those theories that could not explain why no one needs emotions , the remnants of animal existence, continue to live and from the point of view of retrospective experience turn out to be such important, such significant experiences, closest to the core of the personality.

However, by associating emotions exclusively with bodily changes, she transferred them to the category of phenomena unrelated to needs and motives, and deprived emotions of their adaptive meaning and regulatory function. The problem of voluntary regulation of emotions was interpreted in a simplified manner: it was believed that unwanted emotions, such as anger, can be suppressed if one deliberately performs actions characteristic of positive emotions. The main objections to this theory raised in psychology relate to the mechanistic understanding of emotions as a set of sensations caused by peripheral changes, and to the explanation of the nature of higher feelings. Criticism of the James-Lange theory by physiologists (C.S. Sherrington, W. Cannon, etc.) is based on data obtained in experiments with animals. The main ones indicate that the same peripheral changes occur in a variety of emotions, as well as in conditions not associated with emotions.

In response to these reproaches, James declared that only the “lowest” emotions inherited by man from his animal ancestors are of organic origin. This group can include such emotions as fear, anger, despair, rage, but, of course, it is not applicable to such “subtle”, as he puts it, emotions such as religious feeling, the feeling of a man’s love for a woman, aesthetic, intellectual, moral experience etc. Thus, James sharply distinguished between the areas of “lower” and “higher” emotions. But L.S. Vygotsky also criticized this theory for contrasting “lower” emotions, as caused by changes in the body, with “higher,” truly human experiences, supposedly having no material basis.

These theories laid the foundation for the construction of a number of metaphysical theories in the doctrine of emotions. In this respect, the theory of James and Lange was a step back in comparison with the work of Darwin and the direction that directly developed from him.

Cannon's theory.

Experimental attacks on the James-Lange theory were carried out in two directions: from physiological laboratories and from psychological laboratories. Physiological laboratories played a treacherous role in relation to the James-Lange theory, or rather, the book of W. Cannon played it.

Experimental attacks on the theory of James (Lange) were carried out in two directions: from physiological laboratories and from psychological laboratories. Physiological laboratories played a treacherous role in relation to the theory of James and Lange, or rather, the book of W. Cannon played it. He was one of the first to note that the fact that the bodily changes observed during the occurrence of different emotional states are very similar to each other and are insufficient in diversity to fully satisfactorily explain the qualitative differences in the highest emotional experiences of a person. Internal organs, with changes in the states of which James-Lange associated the emergence of emotional ones. states, in addition, are insensitive structures that very slowly come to a state of excitement. Emotions usually arise and develop quite quickly. In later studies, it was discovered that of all the structures of the brain, it is not even the thalamus itself that is most functionally connected with emotions. , and the hypothalamus and the central parts of the limbic system. In experiments conducted on animals, it was found that electrical influences on these structures can control emotional states, such as anger, fear (J. Delgado).

Lindsay-Hebb theory

The psychoorganic theory of emotions (as the James-Lange concept can be conventionally called) was further developed under the influence of electrophysiological studies of the brain. On its basis, the Lindsay-Hebb activation theory arose. According to this theory, emotional states are determined by the influence of the reticular formation of the lower part of the brain stem. Emotions arise as a result of disruption and restoration of balance in the corresponding structures of the central nervous system. The activation theory is based on the following basic principles: - The electroencephalographic picture of the brain that arises during emotions is an expression of the so-called “activation complex” associated with the activity of the reticular formation.

The work of the reticular formation determines many dynamic parameters of emotional states: their strength, duration, variability and a number of others.

Following theories that explain the relationship between emotional and organic processes, theories have emerged that describe the influence of emotions on the human psyche and behavior. Emotions, as it turned out, regulate activity, revealing a very definite influence on it, depending on the nature and intensity of the emotional experience. BEFORE. Hebb was able to experimentally obtain a curve expressing the relationship between the level of emotional arousal of a person and the success of his practical activity. There is a curvilinear, “bell-shaped” relationship between emotional arousal and the effectiveness of human activity. To achieve the highest results in activity, both too weak and very strong emotional arousals are undesirable. For each person (and in general for all people) there is an optimum of emotional excitability, which ensures maximum efficiency in work. The optimal level of emotional arousal, in turn, depends on many factors: on the characteristics of the activity being performed, on the conditions in which it takes place, on the individuality of the person involved in it, and on much more. Too weak emotional arousal does not provide proper motivation for activity, and too strong one destroys it, disorganizes it and makes it practically uncontrollable. In humans, in the dynamics of emotional processes and states, cognitive-psychological factors play no less a role than organic and physical influences (cognitive means related to knowledge). In this regard, new concepts have been proposed that explain human emotions by the dynamic features of cognitive processes.