After World War II, in the context of acute confrontation between East and West, the US government, based on geostrategic interests, supported the Kuomintang group during the Chinese Civil War in 1948–1949, providing it with financial resources, weapons and advisers. And after the defeat and evacuation to the island of Taiwan, they strongly supported the so-called New China. Among other things, aviation was widely used in the Cold War of the “two Chinas,” including secret units.

Chinese crew against the backdrop of a B-17 before another flight

In 1952, the CIA trained 5 Taiwanese pilots and two mechanics at air bases in Japan to fly illegal missions to drop paratroopers and equipment over mainland China. And the following year, the Special Operations Division was organized, to which two disarmed B-17s were transferred from the front airline Western Enterprises. On July 15, 1956, the unit was renamed the Technical Development Group (at that time it consisted of 3 B-17s and 3 B-26s), but for reasons of secrecy, all personnel wore the insignia of the 34th Squadron of the Taiwan Air Force "Bat".

The unit's aircraft were quite active in demolition work and, accordingly, suffered quite heavy losses - for example, from 1954 to 1959, the Chinese Air Force and Air Defense were shot down 3 B-17s:

May 26, 1954 - anti-aircraft artillery fire over Fujian, 4 crew members were killed;
- June 22, 1956 - over Jainghi by a MiG-17 fighter, 11 people were killed;
- May 29, 1957 - over Guangdong by a MiG-17PF fighter, 14 people were killed.

In addition to the actual Taiwanese “Flying Fortresses,” a pair of B-17s, which belonged to the CIA, were based on the island for a short time. In 1957, the United States decided to support the Tibetan uprising against communist China. To continue the fight they needed trained agents and weapons. These were, in theory, what the B-17s were supposed to deliver. The vehicles were transferred from US Air Force stocks, all identification marks and numbers were painted over, and they themselves were repainted black (since they were supposed to fly mainly at night). In mid-September, one aircraft was transported to Clark Field Air Force Base in the Philippines. Five Polish emigrant pilots, who were initially supposed to be used to send agents in Eastern Europe, underwent retraining here. After retraining, the B-17 was transported to Okinawa, where Tibetan agents were trained. At least two B-17 missions to Tibet are known: in early October 1957 and early November 1957. Both flights were made with an intermediate landing at the Kurmitola airfield (East Pakistan). In 1958, the B-17s were replaced by the more suitable C-118As.

The squadron also included several B-26s, which were used exclusively for distributing leaflets and other literature. Taiwan was also home to three CIA B-26s, which were used from February 1953 to infiltrate North Korean airspace from China.

B-26 from the Taiwan Air Force

Of these vehicles, only one aircraft (43-22633) returned to Clark Field, the other two were lost - 43-22634 crashed during a training flight over the Taiwan Strait on April 14, 1955, and 43-22622 crashed in Shenyang Province (PRC) during night flight time November 5, 1957

In addition, in the late 50s and early 60s, the CIA used one unmarked RB-69A for electronic reconnaissance. The plane was controlled by a Chinese crew, flew from Taipei airfield, and landed at Kunsan Air Base (South Korea) and in Thailand.

Electronic reconnaissance was also carried out by the crew of Lockheed C-130B-II 59-1531 (serial number 3579), formally transferred from the US Air Force to Air Asia, headquartered in Tainan. The crew carried out combat missions on the border with China from February 1 to October 25, 1965.

“The Second Indochina War (1954-1975): causes, stages, results Contents INTRODUCTION Chapter I. Prerequisites and causes of the Second Indochina...”

-- [ Page 1 ] --

Second Indochina War (1954-1975): causes, stages,

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Second Indochina War

1.2. Sides to the war and their goals

Chapter II. The course of the war, its main stages

2.1. Early period of the war (1959 – 1964)

2.2. Full-scale US intervention (1964-1973)

2.3. The final stage of the war (1973-1975)

Chapter III. Results of the Second Indochina War

3.1. General results of the war. Reasons for the defeat of the United States.

The role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam

3.2. Geopolitical consequences of the war

3.3. The fate of Vietnam after the war. Post-war development of Vietnam........... 99 CONCLUSION

List of used literature and sources

INTRODUCTION

The Indochina wars are divided into: the first Indochina war (1946), the second Indochina war (1954-1975) and the third Indochina war (1975-1990).

The First Indochina War (French Vietnam War) began in 1946 (the start of the full-scale Vietnam War) and lasted until the Geneva Accords were signed in 1954, the First Indochina War was fought by France for the support of its Indochina colonies. In all cases, France, with the support of local allies (from 1950 with the support of the United States), fought against local communist rebels who fought for the independence of their countries with the active assistance of China and the Soviet Union, which was their “patron”.

Second Indochina War, also known in Vietnam as the American Resistance or simply "American War", "Vietnam War"

began as a conflict between the United States, supported by the government of South Vietnam, and North Vietnam, based on the communist Viet Cong (National Liberation Front) and the People's Army of Vietnam (PAV), known to the West as the North Vietnamese Army. This conflict began in the second half of the 1950s and ended in 1975.

signing of the Paris Agreement on a US ceasefire in southern Vietnam. The United States supported France in the First Indochina War, with the support of the South Vietnamese government in opposition to the National Liberation Front and the communist allied NAV. With great ambition to annex and build its influence in Indochina, the US took over control of Vietnam from France after the Geneva Accords and turned South Vietnam into a vehicle to carry out its plans. North Vietnam at that time received military and financial support from China and the Soviet Union, members of the communist bloc such as North Korea, Bulgaria, etc. However, the essence of the war was the struggle of the local governments of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia against the pro-communist forces supported by North Vietnam, therefore, the name “second Indochina War” combines three different wars - the Vietnam War (1954-1975), the Laotian Civil War (1962-1975) and the Cambodian Civil War (1967-1975)1.

The Third Indochina War is the historical armed confrontation between various forces in Indochina, after the complete liberation of Vietnam at the end of the 20th century, which split into two blocks of so-called “communist countries”.

Accordingly, this may include the Cambodian-Vietnamese War, which began when Vietnam invaded Cambodia and overthrew the genocidal Khmer Rouge regime. The war lasted from May 1975 to December 1989; Sino-Vietnamese War (1979), was a short war in February-March 1979 between the People's Republic of China and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The Chinese invaded Vietnam as "punishment" for the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia after 1975, and left after a month, and this war was the first socialist war between China and Vietnam. After the end of the war, relations between China and Vietnam remained tense for about a decade, accompanied by Sino-Vietnamese armed clashes (1979-1990) 2. The end of this third significant armed confrontation in Indochina Ban nghin cu lch s ng. Vn kin ng (1945-1954). Nh xut bn S tht. HNi. 1978, T. 265 Armed clashes constantly occurred on the border (June 1980, May 1981, April 1983, April 1984, June 1985 and December 1986 - January 1987), which at times resulted in into a real border conflict (in 1984). The last armed conflict between the countries occurred in March 1988.

in 1991 marked the collapse and disappearance from the political scene of the history of the USSR of the leading state of one of the two warring “communist” blocs 3.

The relevance of the research work is largely related to the current geopolitical state of the new round of confrontation between major powers, their attempts to expand their zone of influence, attract as many allies as possible, and sort things out between themselves “with their hands.”

third countries. The history of the second Indochina War may be a warning about the limits to which this kind of confrontation should not be taken. In addition, it is important to study the experience of the victory of a state that is weak in material and military-technical equipment over a powerful rival, if it is an obvious aggressor, the other country is fighting for its independence. It is also important to know how the geopolitical situation in the region and the world has changed since the end of the war.

This topic has scientific, applied and practical significance.

The topic makes it possible to use the research results to solve practical problems, these are the tasks of reconciling the people of the North and South of Vietnam, removing hostility and misunderstandings after the war. Even today this problem exists, causing instability in society and distrust in the state. This brings difficulties in the economic development, politics and culture of Vietnam. Only by studying the history of this war, we will learn what was right, what was wrong in the war, who was to blame, who was not, was this war necessary, or is it just a senseless war?

In addition, the history of the second Indochina War (1954-1975) is important for the Vietnamese. It meant the victory of Vietnam, and for us this victory is a source of pride, because in world history, Vietnam was the first country that won against such a powerful and influential country as Davidson F., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, 2002. - P. 15.

USA. It is a challenge for our generation to remember and be proud of what Vietnam has achieved.

The purpose of this research work is to clarify the causes of the war, its goals, characterize the course and analyze the historical and geopolitical consequences of the war.

The tasks that were set in this work:

1) Find out the reasons and prerequisites for the war.

2) Characterize the goals and objectives of the parties participating in the war.

3) Consider the course of the war, highlight its stages.

4) Assess the degree of influence of the Vietnam conflict on the regional and international situation.

5) Analyze the reasons for the victory of Vietnam and the defeat of the United States and its allies.

6) Determine the role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam.

7) Consider the consequences of the war for the participating countries and geopolitical changes.

The subject is Vietnam in the period 1954-1975; The subject is the causes, moves and results of the war.

The set goals and objectives in this research work determined the need to use a certain research methodology.

During this work, the following methods were used:

1) Historical-genetic, which includes identifying the prerequisites that caused the war, a consistent examination of its course and results.

2) Comparative method, including for comparing the goals and forces of the warring parties, comparing their strategies and tactics, analyzing the geopolitical situation before and after the second Indochina War.

3) The systematic method was used for a comprehensive examination of war as a complex socio-political phenomenon.

4) The narrative method made it possible to describe the most important events of the war and their significance.

State of knowledge of the topic. The Vietnam conflict, how other members of the world community felt about the events in Indochina, why the war was so long, how its course developed, what were its short-term and long-term results. These and many other questions have attracted and continue to attract the close attention of scientists and public figures in many countries. Despite the fact that the war in Vietnam ended relatively long ago (for the Vietnamese - recently), it has recently raised many questions among historians, such as why the war started? What did the world want from Vietnam? Why Vietnam? Why did Vietnam win?

Many scientific works have been published on this topic, which are devoted to the study of the causes, prerequisites for development and results influencing the current geopolitical state of the participating countries, as well as throughout the world. The Second Indochina War is of great interest not only among Vietnamese scientists, but also among American and Russian historians.

Naturally, scientists from Vietnam actively studied military processes in their country. Louis Van Loy's (2000) work 50 nm ngoi giao Viet Nam (50 Years of Viet Nam Diplomacy) analyzed Vietnam's military policy during the 35 years of war from 1940 to 1975. Louis Van Loy is one of the key diplomats of Vietnam in the period 1954-1975, also one of the historical witnesses. Vietnamese historians Van Tien Dung, Nguyen Thi Binh, Nguyen He Tho and many others also worked on this topic. Nguyen Thi Binh was a diplomat who attended the Paris Conference in 1973 and a few years later she wrote a memoir about this decisive conference. In 2001, Public Policy published her book, written with her colleagues, entitled “Memories of the Paris Conference.”

Another participant and witness of the war, general and politician Vo Nguyen Giap, wrote about the Vietnamese conflicts. Vo Nguyen Giap is also known as the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Ho Chi Minh government, the Commander-in-Chief of the Viet Minh forces, the Commander-in-Chief of the People's Army of Vietnam, the Minister of Defense and a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

The Viet Cong Rising Guide for Underdeveloped Countries" (2001), etc.

However, his most important works are the first and third books. In the book How We Won the War (1976), the author described the methods that were used in the Ho Chi Minh campaign. It was the 1975th company to end the Vietnam War.

Another work that has received positive reviews from readers around the world is his third book, People's War, People's Army:

A guide to the Viet Cong uprising for underdeveloped countries,” a kind of guide for “socialists” in similar conflicts.

This topic is also actively studied by American scientists: Stanley Karnow (Pulitzer Prize winner), David L. Anderson, Ilya V. Gaiduk, Frederick Downs Jr., Marilyn Young, Ryan Jenkins, Robert McNamara, Phillip B.

Davidson, George C. Herring and others. Among the English-language authors is the work of David L. Anderson “The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars)”, in which he sets out the origins, course and historical legacy of the war. The book was published in 2005, examines the French colonial war (the first Indochina war) and the second Indochina war, but he focused on the American war in Vietnam, that is, the second Indochina war against the United States in 1954-1975. The author examines military, political, diplomatic, social and economic issues in both Vietnam and the United States. Its brevity, readability, and authoritative overview make this book ideal for beginning or advanced students of twentieth-century Vietnamese conflicts.

This work uses the work of Stanley Karnow (Stanley Karnow) “Vietnam: A History 1954-1975” (Vietnam: History 1954-1975), published in 1997. Stanley Karnow was born in New York in 1925, served in US Army in the China-Burma-India Theater during World War II, he graduated from Harvard University. He began his journalistic career in Paris in 1950.

as a correspondent. He went to Asia in 1959 and received

Pulitzer Prize in History for his book In Our Image:

American Empire in the Philippines." His other books include Mao and China: From Revolution. He served as chief correspondent for the series "Vietnam: A Television Story", for which he received six Emmys.

"Vietnam: History 1954-1975." is a masterfully written history of America's intervention in Vietnam - certainly one of the two best historical single-volumes. This book is a comprehensive and fascinating look at the Vietnam War, from its underlying causes surrounding the end of World War II to the eventual communist takeover of South Vietnam in April 1975.

He analyzes the conflict from a political and military point of view. The three strands of this book are: first, the conflict between France and the Viet Minh in 1945, and how the French lost the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954; second, how the US government formulated its Vietnam policy during the Kennedy administration, and how that policy ultimately failed; and third, how Richard Nixon, upon becoming president in 1969, changed America's policy in Vietnam and began the "Vietnamization" strategy. In addition to these works, be sure to consider the Emmy - an American television award. The Emmy is considered the television equivalent of the Oscar (for film), the Grammy Award (for music), and the Tony Award (for theater). // History of Emmy Statuette. Emmys.

work “The Vietnam War: 1945 -1990.” Marilyn Yanga, this work is an excellent starting point for understanding Vietnam. This book is biased but also informative and a good read. She provided a complete portrait of that historical era. A portrait that always swayed one way or the other depending on who painted it. Many will criticize her attempt, calling him a leftist, a defeatist, or a liar. But the idea behind her work is that there have been many lies over a 45-year period, the vast majority produced by the US government. After reading this work, the reader can see how the same mistakes are being made again in the current wars in Southwest Asia and South Asia to promote the idea of ​​Western hegemony throughout the world.

The work of F.B. is devoted to questions about the politics and strategy of the Vietnamese conflicts. Davidson's "Looking Back: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam", published in 2004. Unlike other works, Davidson wrote a description of the military history of the first and second Indochina Wars in Vietnam. Without focusing on the political aspects of the war, Davidson sharply discusses the military strategy that won and lost the war.

General Davidson's views are the inside view on the Vietnam War, at least from the American side. As he rightly notes, the war was the Vietnam War, first against the French, then against the Americans. No one was better positioned to understand the American part of the 30 Years' War than General Davidson.

The main value of this story is seeing the story through the eyes of the central participant. Davidson researched the French part of the war, looking at the struggle between the "two Vietnams" (North and South Vietnam) through American reports and documents obtained from North Vietnam.

In Russia, interest in the Vietnamese conflicts is very great and appeared immediately after the end of the second Indochina War in 1975. One of the representatives who studied the causes and prerequisites of the war were Yu. A. Zhukov and V. V. Sharapov - Soviet and Russian journalist, diplomat, who in 1972 published the publication “People at War. Vietnamese Diaries,” in which the authors followed the developments in Indochina over a quarter of a century.

During the period of open American aggression in this area of ​​the globe, they repeatedly visited the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, met with anti-aircraft gunners and pilots, with militia fighters, workers of Hanoi and Hong Gai, with the defenders of the Vinh Lin zone, which lies on the 17th parallel.

Other works on this topic include the works of the following scientists: A.

N. Gordienko, Y. Lugovskoy, M. V. Nikolsky and A. Mineev.

At the moment, there is not enough information in Russian literature about the consequences of the war in Vietnam, what has changed in society and in the politics of Vietnam. However, there is quite a lot of work on this topic about the United States, for example, the work of M. M. Ilyinsky on changes in US society and politics, the opinions of US presidents on defeat and the lessons of the war.

In addition, US domestic politics was discussed in a 1972 book.

“The Vietnam War and the Internal Political Struggle in the United States” by V. A. Liven is a Soviet diplomat who was interested in the Vietnamese conflicts. The work makes an attempt to show the history of the slow creep of the United States into the war in Vietnam, as well as the balance of power in the United States after the presidential elections of 1964, to trace the interest at a certain stage of a large group of monopolies, mainly those associated with the military business, in the war in Southeast Asia, as well as the influence of the military-industrial complex on government foreign policy. A significant phenomenon of the period under review was the development of the anti-war movement against the Vietnam War. The book also examines the stages of this movement, the participation in it of representatives of various social strata, and the struggle of American communists against the aggressive policies of the US ruling circles.

The role of the USSR in the second Indochina War is discussed in a work published in 1986. Authors M. P. Isaeva and A. S. Chernysheva “History of Soviet-Vietnamese relations (1917-1985).” This book examines international support for the struggle of the people of Vietnam, in addition, the authors analyzed the history of Soviet-Vietnamese relations, and emphasized that year after year the friendship of the two countries became stronger and more multifaceted. This topic is also discussed in the Vietnamese diaries of Yuri Zhukov and Viktor Sharapov. The authors spoke about the courage and resilience of the Vietnamese people, repelling the American aggressors, about the fighting proletarian solidarity of the Soviet country and other socialist countries with the fighting Vietnam. Thus, there is quite enough literature for writing a research paper.

The thesis consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The first chapter examines the background and causes of the Second Indochina War and the goals of the parties to the war. The second chapter analyzes the course of the war and its main stages. The third chapter of the research work is devoted to the results of the second Indochina War, the reasons for the defeat of the United States, the role of the USSR in the victory of Vietnam, the geopolitical consequences of the war and the fate of Vietnam after the war.

Chapter I. Prerequisites and causes of the second Indochina War

–  –  –

Since the second half of the 19th century, Vietnam was a colony of France. In September 1940, the Vichy5 France regime capitulated to Nazi Germany. In this regard, the French administration agreed with Japan that the Japanese would gain access to the strategic resources of Vietnam while maintaining the colonial administrative apparatus of France. Since 1940, Japan has colonized the territory of North Vietnam instead of France. In fact, North Vietnam played an important role in Japan's military strategy to dominate all of Southeast Asia. In anticipation of Germany's victory in Europe, Japan temporarily supported France's defense system in Indochina 6.

In 1941, Nguyen Ai Quoc returned from China, changing his name to Ho Chi Minh.

On May 19, 1941, he created the League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) 7 with the goal of uniting all sectors of society, all revolutionary parties, all patriotic organizations in society in order to together expel Japan and France, in order to make Vietnam completely independent and create a country Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The League began to operate in alliance with the Indochina Communist Party, which had a strong influence among the urban working class, while the Viet Minh became active in the countryside.

The Vichy regime is a collaborationist regime in Southern France that emerged after the defeat of France at the beginning of World War II and the fall of Paris in 1940 // Rousseau A. “National Revolution” of the Vichy regime // French Yearbook 2003. M., 2003.P. 45.

The short Japanese presence in Vietnam left a heavy mark. From October 1944 to May 1945, a severe famine broke out in Vietnam, which claimed a huge number of lives.

Viet Minh is a military-political organization created by Ho Chi Minh to fight for the independence of Vietnam from France and Japan // Mkhitaryan S. A. From the history of the United National Front of Vietnam // Questions of History, No. 9, 1954. P. 23.

In December 1944, Vo Nguyen Giap 8 created a brigade consisting of 34 people, which became known as the Liberation Propaganda Brigade, which became the basis of the armed patriotic forces of Vietnam in their fight against the colonialists. They began military action against Japan, expanding the war zone. Shortly before the official surrender of Japan in World War II, the August Revolution unfolded in Vietnam, which swept the entire country 9. Numerous and widespread strikes took place in the North, especially in the province of Thai Binh. Since August 12, 1945, units of the Viet Minh army constantly attacked Japanese plantations in the provinces of Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai and others and supported the anti-Japanese uprisings of the people of these provinces 10. One of the goals of the August revolution was the desire to force the pro-Japanese puppet State ruler Emperor Bao Dai 11 transfer power to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On August 19, 1945, Viet Minh representatives met with the head of the Japanese administration in Vietnam. The Japanese side accepted all the terms of the Viet Minh.

But after the surrender of Japan, France, with the consent of Emperor Bao Dai, again began to actively interfere in the affairs of the puppet State of Vietnam. The people of Saigon actively fought against France with the help of the Vietnamese National Unification Front. On August 22, 1945, the Viet Minh demanded that Bao Dai resign, which he did. Before he abdicated the throne, he said: “It is better to be with the people of an independent country than to be Vo Nguyen Giap (Vietnamese V Nguyn Gip; August 25, 1911 - October 4, 2013) - Vietnamese general and politician.

He took part in the Indochina and Vietnam wars. He is also known as the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Ho Chi Minh government, the Commander-in-Chief of the Viet Minh forces, the Commander-in-Chief of the People's Army of Vietnam, the Minister of Defense and a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

Truong Shin. August Revolution in Vietnam. M.: Foreign Literature Publishing House, 1954, P. 76.

–  –  –

Bao Dai (October 22, 1913, Hue - July 30, 1997, Paris) - 13th emperor of the Nguyen dynasty, the last emperor of Vietnam, ruler of the pro-Japanese puppet state of the Vietnam Empire and the pro-French puppet State of Vietnam // Kobelev E.V.

Bao Dai, last emperor of Vietnam:

historical sketch // Problems of the Far East. 2012. No. 2. P. 154-166; No. 3. pp. 134-145.

king of a slave country"13. By the end of 1945, the Viet Minh had completely taken over all of Vietnam14.

Ho Chi Minh at that time was in a secret communist base in the forest in Tan Chao and led all revolutionary actions.

After Bao Dai resigned from office, Ho Chi Minh returned from Tan Chao to Hanoi. Under his leadership, the Declaration of Independence was written. On September 2, 1945, the declaration of independence was announced by Ho Chi Minh in Ba Dinh Square in Hanoi. The formation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and its independence from Japan and France were also announced. Power in the new state was in the hands of the communist leader Ho Chi Minh.

With the victory of the August Revolution in 1945, the Vietnamese people ended French colonial rule that had lasted for almost a century. At the same time, the existence of the autocratic monarchy, which existed for almost a thousand years, also ended.

However, this did not mean that the problems for Vietnam were over. French troops continued to be present on its territory, who wanted to restore influence in the region. France had a very big ambition, so Vietnam had to once again enter into confrontation with such a strong country as France.

The history of the war with France consists of two stages: the first lasted from September 2, 1945 to December 19, 1946, when Ho Chi Minh called on all the people of Vietnam to rebel against France. The second stage began on December 19, 1946 and lasted until August 1, 1954. During this time, many key events took place in the history of the war with France. This period, from 1945 to 1954,

Qunh C, c Hng, Cc triu i Vit Nam, NXB Thanh nin, 1999, Vol. 386.

Bo Thanh Nin - C quan ngn lun ca Hi lin hip thanh nin Vit Nam, No. 5, T. 24.

Luu Van Loi, 50 Years of Vietnamese Diplomacy 1945-1995, Volume 1: 1945-1975 (Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2000), R.24.

as already noted, began to be called the first Indochina War or the French-Vietnamese War.

It should be noted that after the victory of the August Revolution in 1945.

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) was in a critical situation. 16 First, in September 1945, a 200,000-strong Kuomintang expeditionary force arrived in Vietnam north of the 16th parallel with the nominal goal of supporting the Viet Minh, but in reality they wanted to overthrow a new government, that is, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. And to the south of the 16th parallel, a corps of more than 200 thousand British troops advanced, also with the nominal goal of helping Vietnam, but in fact, the goal of Great Britain was to help France in the fight against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In addition, more than 60,000 Japanese soldiers were liberated by Vietnamese collaborators of France, these troops acted on the side of France.

Secondly, economic and financial difficulties were an important problem. Agriculture was not developed, the economy as a whole was destroyed, since all the money went to the war18.

Thirdly, there were socio-political difficulties.

The Vietnamese government at that time was young, so there was a lack of experience in organizing and managing the state. The armed forces were very weak. More than half of Vietnam's population was illiterate due to the corresponding policies of colonial France19.

True, at the end of February 1946, Kuomintang units began to withdraw from Indochina20. British troops left Indochina at the end of March 1946. Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-NXB Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008, Vol. 136.

The Kuomintang is a conservative political party of the Republic of China. // History of the Second World War 1939-1945 (in 12 volumes) / editorial coll., ch. ed. Grechko. A. A. T. 11. - M.: Voenizdat, 1980. - P. 392.

Luu Van Loi, 50 Years of Vietnamese Diplomacy 1945-1995, Volume 1: 1945-1975 (Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 2000), P.38.

Bo Quoc Phong Vien Lich Su Quan Su Viet Nam, 50 Nam Quan Doi Nhan Dan Viet Nam (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Quan Doi Nhan Dan, 1995), R.25.

Howard R. Simpson. in Bin Ph cuc i u lch s m nc M mun qun i. NXB Cng an nhn dn. HNi.

2004, T. 189. (bn dch ca Kim Oanh).

On March 6, 1946, France recognized the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as part of the Indochina Federation and the French Union. On November 20, 1946, in the port of Haiphong, a Vietnamese boat was fired upon by French warships. The French commander sent a message to the Viet Minh leadership and demanded that the Viet Minh presence in Haiphong be cleared. Having failed to meet these conditions, on November 23, 1946, French warships began massively shelling the city, as a result of which more than six thousand residents of Haiphong were killed. 21. On December 19, 1946, the French command demanded the disarmament of the Viet Minh forces in Haiphong. Using a large superiority in weapons, the Vietnamese communists in large populated areas of Vietnam were driven out by French troops.

In December 1946, the Viet Minh leadership decided to switch to a strategy of prolonged people's war, which was aimed at depleting the forces of France22.

On December 19, 1946, French forces attacked Hanoi, and fighting in the city continued until February 1947. The second stage of the war began. In January-February 1947, Vietnamese forces blocked Hue (a city in the center of Vietnam) for several weeks, launched several attacks, but were forced to retreat with losses.

By the end of March 1947, the French controlled the main cities, the roads connecting them with each other and the coastal territory of the country.

Viet Bac23 became the main stronghold of the communists.

Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-NXB Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008, Vol. 156.

–  –  –

Viet Bac is a region of North Vietnam that served as a Viet Minh support base during the First Vietnam War (1946-1954). Viet Bac is also called the capital of northern Vietnam because this area was the location of the headquarters of the Communist Party of Vietnam in the period before the uprising against French rule in 1945, as well as the location of the headquarters of the Viet Minh government during the war of resistance against the French colonialists//Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-NXB Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008, Vol. 184.

In 1948, France came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create a political alternative to the communist state. On May 27, 1948, the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam was created, headed by the President of Cochin China24 Nguyen Van Xuan. On July 14, 1949, Cochin, Annam 25 and Thonin26 united to form the State of Vietnam27. It gained international recognition in 1950, although its main strength was mainly in a small part in the south, while the Democratic Republic of Vietnam largely dominated the rest Vietnamese territory. Former Emperor Bao Dai was declared head of state. Ngo Dinh Diem was appointed prime minister in 1954 and, after ousting Bao Dai from power in 1955, became president of the Republic of Vietnam (or State of Vietnam)28.

The military-political situation contributed to the development of a tendency towards the unification of the revolutionary forces of Vietnam, Laos and Kampuchea. In January 1950

In the liberated areas of Laos, a preparatory committee was formed to convene the Congress of People's Representatives. On August 13-15, 1950, Congress decided to create the Neo Lao Itsala Front (Laotian Liberation Front), which united all the progressive forces of the Lao people, elected the Neo Lao Itsala Central Committee of 15 members, headed by Prince Souphanuvong .

The creation of the Laotian Liberation Front laid a solid basis for the unification of all patriotic forces in the country. The Congress also formed a government of national resistance, approved a political program that defined the tasks of the struggle for the independence of Laos and the elimination of feudalism, the Autonomous Republic of Cochin - a state entity that existed in the southern part of Vietnam in 1946-1948.

The Annam Protectorate is a French colonial possession that existed in Vietnam at the end of the 19th - first half of the 20th centuries.

The Tonkin Protectorate is a French colonial possession that existed in northern Vietnam in the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries.

The state of Vietnam is a state that claimed power over the entire territory of Vietnam in 1949-1954 //Soviet military encyclopedia. ed. Ogarkov. N.V. volume 5. M., Military Publishing House, 1978. P.544-545.

Archimedes L.A Pattiyu Why Vietnam, Nxb Nng, 2008, T. 630 – 631.

for the development of the national economy and culture, strengthening the alliance with the peoples of Vietnam and Kampuchea.

In February 1951, the 2nd Congress of the CPC was held in Tuyen Quang, in which 158 delegates with a decisive vote and 53 delegates with an advisory vote, representing over 760 thousand party members working in party organizations in Vietnam, Laos and Kampuchea, took part. The congress discussed the situation in Indochina, outlined the main directions of political and economic development of Vietnam, approved the Manifesto, Program and Charter of the party, elected new governing bodies, decided to transition the party to a legal position and rename it the Workers' Party of Vietnam (PTV). In March 1951, the United Front of the Peoples of Indochina was created against the French colonialists29.

From the beginning of 1954, the Battle of Dien Bien Phu 30 began, which is considered the decisive battle of the first Indochina War. The battle for Dien Bien Phu lasted 54 days, as a result of which the French garrison capitulated (10,863 troops surrendered on the day of surrender). In May 1954, France capitulated to the Vietnamese People's Army after two months of defeats. This happened despite US support.

In this situation, in the spring of 1954, an international conference was held in Geneva with the participation of the foreign ministers of the USSR, China, Great Britain, the USA and France. Representatives of the People's Republic of China, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and South Vietnam also participated in the preparation of the agreements. The conference addressed the Korean and Indo-Chinese issues. Discussion Bo Qun i Nhn dn cui tun, V Nguyn Gip vi nhng ngy u chng thc dn Php min Nam, 08/23/2007.

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu is a battle between the French army and the forces of the United National Front of Lien-Viet, which took place in March-May 1954. // “Despite heavy U.S. aid, the base was overrun on May 7, 1954" The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th edition. Micropedia. Vol.4. Chicago, 1994. R.84.

The Battle of Dien Bien Phu was of great historical significance. This was the first time that the army of the Asian colonies defeated the army of a European superpower. This eliminated the will of France to colonize Indochina and forced this country to leave Indochina // Thi im ca nhng s tht (trch hi k Navarre v in Bin Ph/ Herri Navarre. NXB: Cng an nhn dn, 1994.

i tng V Nguyn Gip, Tng tp hi k - in Bin Ph im hn lch s. T. 871, 872.

the problem of Korean reunification ended in vain. The second half of the conference was devoted to the fate of Indochina after the end of the first Indochina War (1946–1954)32.

This part of the conference was attended, on the one hand, by representatives of the national liberation forces and communists of Vietnam, and, on the other, by the French colonial government and its supporters. The meeting opened on May 7, the day the French military base at Dien Bien Phu fell. On July 21, 1954, the Geneva Agreements were concluded, ending France's colonial war in Indochina and determining the future fate of the former French colonies in the region. Agreements, in particular those related to the fate of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, provided

Ceasefire;

The temporary division of Vietnam into two parts along the 17th parallel (where a demilitarized zone was created), with the regrouping of the Vietnamese People's Army in the north and French Union forces in the south;

The holding of free elections in both parts of the country in July 1956 to determine the future political regime and the reunification of the country;

Demilitarization and neutrality of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia;

A ban on the supply of weapons, ammunition and military materials to these countries;

Creation of an International Control Commission to monitor the implementation of agreements 34.

Francois Joyaux, Trung Quc v vic gii quyt cuc chin tranh ng Dng ln th I, Nh xut bn Thng tin l lun, nm 1981, Vol. 299-306.

Demilitarized zone is a territory in which, under an international treaty or other (incl.

The internal state act liquidated military installations and other objects, prohibited the maintenance of armed forces, the construction of fortifications, the performance of maneuvers, etc.

Qun s (QLVNCH) tp 4. NXb i Nam. Chng 3: Cc din tin trong vic hnh thnh qun i quc gia. trang 202.

Figure 1. Map of Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Accords.

In general, the Geneva Agreements provided for the granting of independence to South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, the withdrawal of foreign troops from the territories of these states, and the prohibition of further interference in the internal affairs of these countries. The requirements for the inadmissibility of military intervention were also emphasized in Articles 17a and 18: “From the entry into force of this agreement, it is prohibited to import into Vietnam any reinforcements of all types of weapons, ammunition and other military materials, such as combat aircraft, warships, artillery guns, rockets and weapons, armor. It is prohibited to create new military bases throughout Vietnam.”35

Bo Quoc Phong Vien Lich Su Quan Su Viet Nam, 50 Nam Quan Doi Nhan Dan Viet Nam (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Quan Doi Nhan Dan, 1995), P.125.

During the negotiation process in Geneva, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam realized that this was a chance to achieve benefits without bloodshed, and wanted to establish a temporary military line along the 13th parallel of the demilitarized zone, which was deeper towards the South. However, this proposal was rejected by the French side due to the fact that although the region under the control of the DRV was large, very few people lived there, and at that time the French army still had complete control over densely populated cities, important roads and coastal plains . According to them, the 19th parallel, North Dong Hoi, was more appropriate for the dividing line.

Due to the uncompromising position of the delegation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, France proposed the 18th parallel due to the fact that it needed a trade route through Laos, i.e. Highway 9, the Viet Minh remained adamant. The conference was deadlocked for 18 days36.

The Ko Conference continued when China forced North Vietnam to propose the 16th Parallel along with a commitment to general elections within the next 6 months. Again, France rejected this proposal and made its recommendation for the 18th parallel, but accepted the proposal for a General Election, albeit with “vague” conditions37.

Only until July 20, 1954, France and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam accepted a new proposal from the USSR that they chose the 17th parallel and fixed the time of the General Elections for 2 years. The next day, July 21, 1954, the Geneva Convention was signed. Accordingly, Vietnam was divided into two parts; the border ran along the 17th parallel and the Ben Hai River. The Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone was not at a distance. See Ibid., p.132.

L Mu Hn (ch bin), Trn B, Nguyn Vn Th, i cng Lch s Vit Nam - Tp 3.NXB Gio dc. HNi.

more than 5 kilometers from each part along the banks of Ben Hai, which became a symbol of the division of Vietnam, starting on August 14, 195438.

North Vietnam was not happy with this decision. However, under pressure from China's allies, Vietnam accepted the "17th parallel" decision with the promise of holding general elections after two years of unification. Then no one suspected that this was the beginning of a 20-year separation, accompanied by a brutal war 39. However, the reasons for the outbreak of the second Indochina War were not only this, but were much deeper.

After France left Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh's government quickly consolidated its power in North Vietnam. And in South Vietnam, the French were replaced by the United States, which viewed South Vietnam as the main link in the security system in the region. The American domino doctrine assumed that if South Vietnam became communist, then all neighboring states of Southeast Asia would fall under communist control. Another huge and brutal war began in Vietnam after the Geneva Agreement - the second Indochina War.

1.2. Sides to the war and their goals

Many countries took part in the Second Indochina War. On the US side, six countries took part in the hostilities: South Korea, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, the Khmer Republic, the Kingdom of Laos and

Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) 40 with support from three more countries:

Philippines, Spain, Republic of China. A DRV (Northern Vietnam) Chin tranh cch mng Vit Nam, 1945-1975: thng li v bi hc. ng cng sn Vit Nam. B chnh tr. Ban ch o tng kt chin tranh. Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, 2000 - Indochinese War, 1946-1954, T. 103-105.

The Pentagon Papers, Gravel Edition, Volume 1, Chapter 3, "The Geneva Conference, May-July, 1954" (Boston:

Beacon Press, 1971).

South Vietnam is a common name in the literature for successive states that existed in 1954-1976 (actually until 1975) in the part of modern Vietnam south of the 17th parallel (r.

Benhai). The capital of “South Vietnam” was the city of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City).

supported by the NLF (Viet Cong)41, China, USSR, North Korea, Laos and then Czechoslovakia, Cuba, Bulgaria.

The first South Korean troops arrived in Vietnam in 1964, and the first large South Korean combat units arrived in the fall of 1965.

The South Korean government agreed to send troops on the condition that the United States would take over their logistical support and maintenance, as well as provide them with modern weapons 42. In total, two divisions and one brigade were transferred to South Vietnam, which made up the largest foreign military contingent in the country after American - more than 300,000 personnel during the entire period of stay43. Only in the 1990s did the facts of massacres committed by soldiers of the national army in Vietnam become known in South Korea. South Korea withdrew its troops from Vietnam in 1973 - the last of the US allies44.

In 1964, the first Thai military personnel arrived in South Vietnam, a year later another 200 sailors were sent to Vietnam; in 1966, the size of the contingent increased by several people; in 1967, the King Cobra unit arrived in southern Vietnam; in 1969 - a large infantry unit "Black Panthers" and 45 aircraft technicians. The total number of Thai military personnel who took part in the Vietnam War is estimated at two brigades. The personnel of the Thai units were recruited on a voluntary basis, but the United States paid bonuses “for overseas service”45.

The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, also known as the Viet Cong (Viet cng) is a military-political organization in South Vietnam in 1960-1977, which was one of the belligerents in the Vietnam War.

Gio trnh Lch s ng Cng sn Vit Nam-Nh xut bn Chnh tr Quc gia-H Ni 2008 T. 184.

Developmental Dictatorship and the Park Chung-hee Era (Homa & Sekey, 2006). R. 248 Chin tranh cch mng Vit Nam, 1945-1975: thng li v bi hc. ng cng sn Vit Nam. B chnh tr. Ban ch o tng kt chin tranh. Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, 2000 - Indochinese War, 1946-1954, T. 143.

The Philippines sent only civilian troops to Vietnam.

The Philippine contingent, in whose activities on the territory of Vietnam at different times up to 2 thousand Filipino citizens took part, operated mainly in the province of Tay Ning and was withdrawn from Vietnam in 1970. The cost of its maintenance amounted to $35 million. As part of the military assistance program, the United States donated two river patrol boats, army vehicles and engineering and construction equipment, as well as light small arms - pistols, M-16 assault rifles and M machine guns to the Philippine contingent for the self-defense of personnel."46

The Philippine military contingent consisted mainly of auxiliary units involved in various programs to assist the South Vietnamese population and in the construction of various facilities.

Officially, Taiwan did not take part in the war, but a group of “psychological warfare” specialists (31 officers) was sent to Saigon. According to Marek Hagmaier, Taiwanese Air Force C-130 military transport aircraft participated in the delivery of military cargo to South Vietnam, and KC-135 refueling aircraft participated in refueling American aircraft carrying out air strikes on the territory of North Vietnam47.

The Belgian government refused to participate in the Vietnam War, but after persistent demands from the United States, it sent a batch of medicines to South Vietnam and donated one ambulance to the South Vietnamese army. American Senator Frank Church expressed extreme displeasure with the amount of assistance from Belgium 48.

Hagmaier Marek. For the union - weapons. US bilateral alliance agreements 1950-1978. M., Voenizdat, 1982. P.83-85, 111, 114-116.

Hagmaier Marek. For the union - weapons. US bilateral alliance agreements 1950-1978. M., Voenizdat, 1982. P.116.

Lugovskoy Yu.. Landsknechts of the Pentagon // “New Time”, No. 8 (1186) dated February 23, 1968, pp. 16-17.

On the DRV side, the Soviet leadership at the beginning of 1965 decided to provide the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with large-scale military-technical assistance. According to the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR Alexei Kosygin, aid to Vietnam during the war cost the Soviet Union 1.5 million rubles a day. Crews of anti-aircraft missile systems (SAM) took direct part in the hostilities. The first battle between USSR anti-aircraft gunners and American aviation took place on July 24, 196549.

Until the end of the war, the USSR supplied North Vietnam with 95 S-75 Dvina air defense systems50 and more than 7.5 thousand missiles for them51. There are allegations that the Soviet Union was involved in the Vietnam War much deeper than is generally accepted count. In particular, the American journalist and former Soviet officer of the Turkestan Military District Mark Sternberg wrote about four fighter air divisions of the USSR, which allegedly took part in battles with American aviation 52. Here we can quote the words of Ilya Shcherbakov, the Soviet ambassador to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam during the war 53: “Helping in repelling air aggression was precisely the main task of Soviet military experts in Vietnam. This essentially limited their participation in hostilities. Although the aura of secrecy surrounding them provided food for numerous myths. They talked about Russian guys wandering with Kalashnikovs through the Vietnamese jungle and terrifying the Americans, about Soviet aces flying Soviet MIGs under Vietnamese names, but during fights with “phantoms” desperately swearing at the very Mineev A.. Ours in the Vietnam War // Echo of the Planet. - 1991. - No. 35. - P. 29.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 121.

Voronov B.A.. Notes of the Chief of Staff of the Group of Soviet Military Specialists in Vietnam. P.34.

Mark Sternberg. Soviet landsknechts abroad // Newspaper “Mirror of the Week” No. 2, p. 35.

Mineev A.. Ours in the Vietnam War, P. 30.

there are Russian expressions. And I, for example, on vacation had to convince friends and acquaintances that all these were anecdotes and stories.”54

The PRC took part in the Second Indochina War. China provided North Vietnam with significant military and economic assistance. Mao Zedong, favoring the emergence of another communist regime in the Southeast Asian region, helped the Democratic Republic of Vietnam since the 1950s. Chinese ground forces were stationed on the territory of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which included several units and formations of anti-aircraft artillery that covered the Vietnamese sky. China did not have its own air defense system and was dependent on the USSR for modern anti-aircraft missile weapons, which was also one of the reasons for the increase in Soviet-Chinese tension. China, like the United States, was an ambitious country, only unlike the United States, China supported Vietnam because of a common ideology. When China saw that the USSR was helping Vietnam a lot, China began to fear that the USSR would take China's place in Indochina.

The goals of the war participants were very complex and varied. For the rulers of the United States and South Vietnam, this war represented a confrontation between two ideologies - communism and anti-communism.

The US wanted to stop the expansion of communism in Southeast Asia through the “domino theory” and paid a huge price for the war. The "Domino Theory" was a famous theory from the 1950s until the 1980s. It theorized that if one country in a region fell under the influence of communism, surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect. 55 The domino theory was used by subsequent United States administrations during the Cold War to justify the need for American intervention throughout Van Tien Dung, Toan thang (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Su That, 1991), R, 114.

Nguyen Thi Binh va Tap the tac gia, Mat Tran Dan Toc Giai phong Chinh phu Cach mang lam thoi tai Hoi nghi Paris ve Viet Nam (Hoi uc) (Hanoi: Nha Xuat Ban Chinh Tri Quoc Gia, 2001), Vol.67.

world. Although he never directly used the term “domino theory,” US President D. Eisenhower developed it and brought it into practice.

Figure 2. Domino theory picture (by Chris Sibilla)

In the period 1965-1973. American troops directly participated in the battles. From the point of view of those who supported American policy, this war closed South Vietnam and Southeast Asia from the communists.

There were two directions of analysis of the causes of the war, from the point of view of Americans and American scientists. Some believed in the state and supported the American army's fight against communism. Others believed that this was the war of a new colonial occupier and that South Vietnam was a puppet state that the United States had received from France. And the policy of “anti-communism,” according to Jonahan Neale, was a reason and served in favor of the capitalist group 56.

In the world situation of that period, the war between the United States and Vietnam was a “hot war” within the “cold war”, which was fiercely taking place all over the world at that time. Despite the contradiction between the USSR and China, they supported Vietnam in the fight against the United States.

Thus, in the Second Indochina War, in fact, two camps collided - socialist (communist) and Western (capitalist). The main reasons for the war were not the desire of the United States and its allies to allow the spread of communism in Asia, but, essentially, two Jonathan Neale, Howard Zinn. A People's History Of The Vietnam War (New Press People's History). The New Press;

Reprint edition (September 3, 2004).Р.73 – 336 rub.

The superpowers fought for zones of influence and an important geopolitical region, which was Indochina57.

–  –  –

To the US government after World War II, the US, on the one hand, spoke of supporting the principle of national self-determination, on the other hand, the US had close relations with its European allies, who declared sovereignty for their former colonies (France). Some NATO allies argued that the colony provided them with economic and military power, and without it, the Western alliance would disintegrate.

Since 1943, Washington has provided assistance to the countries of Southeast Asia against Japanese troops. Ho Chi Minh noted that the US wanted to play a larger role in the Pacific region, and he did everything possible to establish relations with the US, organizing the rescue of pilots who crashed during the Vietnam-Japan War, providing the US with information, promoting anti-Japanese slogans. In exchange, the US intelligence service OSS (US Office of Strategic Services) provided medical assistance, supplied weapons, communications equipment, mentoring and trained small-scale Viet Minh troops59.

On February 28, 1946, Ho Chi Minh (then the President of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) sent a letter to US President Harry Truman, calling for urgent US intervention to support the emerging independent Vietnam60. But he did not receive a response from the United States because the United States considered Ho Chi Minh a “protege of the Communist International” 61 and ignored Decolonization of Asia and Africa, 1945-1960, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State. Qi. P. 25.

Maurice Isserman, John Stewart Bowman (2003, 1992), Vietnam War, pp. 4-5.

Letter from Ho Chi Minh to President Harry S. Truman, 02/28/1946 (ARC Identifier: 305263); Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Office of Strategic Services. (06/13/1942 - 10/01/1945); Records of the Office of Strategic Services, 1919 - 1948; Record Group 226; National Archives.

Adibekov G.M., Shakhnazarova E.N., Shirinya K.K. Organizational structure of the Comintern. 1919-1943. - M.:

Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 1997. -P.280 - ISBN 5-86004-112-8.

Vietnam's request. At the end of September 1946, the US removed all intelligence personnel in Vietnam and sent them home, and ceased contact with the Ho Chi Minh City government.

In addition, since 1949, after the end of the Chinese Civil War and then the Korean War, pro-Soviet tendencies began to emerge in many Arab countries, American politicians experienced fear and apprehension about the wave of communism in the Third World. 63 The United States needed an alliance with France to establish a balance against Soviet power in Europe after World War II. Guided by the “domino theory,” the United States began to help the French in the war with the Viet Minh (Democratic Republic of Vietnam), which was considered associated with the Soviet Union and China. However, until 1950, the DRV was not recognized by the Soviet Union and China and did not receive any support from these two countries64.

The Cold War with the Soviet Union was the biggest issue in US foreign policy in the 1940s and 1950s. The Truman and Eisenhower governments were concerned that if European powers lost their colonies, pro-Soviet communist supporters might gain power in the new states. This could lead to a shift in the international balance of power in favor of the Soviet Union, as well as remove access to economic resources to US allies. Events such as the Indonesian independence struggle (1945-1950), the Vietnam War against France (1945-1954), and Iran (1951) worried the United States that independent countries would support the Soviet Union even if these new governments were not directly linked to the Soviet Union. Thus, the US used technical assistance, sometimes direct military intervention, in support of Archimedes L.A Patti. Why Vietnam, Nxb Nng, 2008, T.622 – 623.

Th gii th ba sau tr thnh t ng ch cc nc khng thuc th gii phng Ty, cng khng thuc h thng x hi ch ngha trong Chin tranh Lnh. Nhng nc ny tham gia Phong tro khng lin kt thnh lp nm 1955 sau Hi ngh Bandung (Indonesia).

Thng tin c bn v cc nc, khu vc v quan h vi Vit Nam, B Ngoi giao Vit Nam, So 23, T.12.

pro-Western anti-communist forces in the newly independent states in the third world countries 65.

Since the end of 1949, when the world situation became tense, the United States officially intervened in the French war in Vietnam. In October 1949, the first US delegation and diplomats were sent to Southeast Asia, then to Saigon, to study the situation. Washington then formally invited representatives of the State of Vietnam to the United States to discuss issues related to stopping the expansion of the Viet Minh role in Indochina. The United States promised to provide assistance to France in politics, economics and the military.

From July 1950 to January 1, 1952, the United States provided significant assistance to France and the government of South Vietnam in their fight against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. However, France was concerned about the US intention to directly support the State of Vietnam. In 1952, France announced that it needed the US to strengthen its military power, but did not need foreign troops in Indochina (ie American troops).

In 1953, D. Eisenhower became the President of the United States and after assessing the situation, he laid down the doctrine of “neo-Eisenhower” instead of the “Truman Doctrine”, and also adopted the strategy of “massive retaliation” as a complete military strategy instead of the strategy of “containment”66.

In the city, the French government appointed General Nauvoo as Commander-General of the French Expeditionary Army in Indochina, who presented a plan according to which within 18 months the French would “end the war with honor.”

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), R.156.

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), pp. 161-175.

To implement the Nava project, France in Indochina provided 12 additional infantry battalions brought from France and North Africa, and also asked for increased military assistance from the United States. By January 1954, only in types of weapons and means of warfare, the United States provided significant assistance to the French in Indochina, supplying them with 360 aircraft, 1,400 tanks and armored vehicles, 390 ships and warships, 16,000 military technical types, 175,000 rifles and machine guns. After 1950, the United States provided weapons for most of the French expeditionary force in Vietnam. In this regard, General Nava later wrote in his memoirs that “our status changed to that of a simple mercenary for America”68.

In 1953, the United States increased military assistance to France, believing that the United States was not yet ready for France in Vietnam. In order to convince domestic American political elites and public opinion, the United States endorsed a strategy of supporting states in Indochina to prevent communist expansion in Southeast Asia. The Washington government argued that the loss of Indochina would lead to negative consequences, that the United States would lose the key to the rest of Southeast Asia and Indochina would become the first “domino” after which other regions of the world could become communist69.

According to Felix Greene, the US target was not only Vietnam and Indochina, but all of Southeast Asia. Because Southeast Asia is one of the richest areas in the world. This is the reason why the United States was increasingly concerned about the problem of Vietnam, “for America After the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the Vietnamese People's Army received many weapons originating in the United States // Toperczer, Istvan. MiG-21 Units of the Vietnam War. Osprey 2001, No. 29. R.80-81.

Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nxb Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, T.322.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P.211.

Vietnam is an area that must be captured by any means necessary."70

The situation for France by 1954 was getting worse, followed by a crushing defeat at Dien Bien Phu, and finally the signing of the Geneva Agreement in May 1954. French troops retreated from Vietnam, North Vietnam was completely liberated. In accordance with the agreement in Geneva, Vietnam was to be united within two years and general elections were planned. But these plans were not destined to come true.

The Geneva agreement meant the US would lose its position in Southeast Asia, and the US refused to sign it. Although American officials were forced to admit that violation of these agreements would be viewed with “serious concern and as a threat to international peace and security,” the United States created such a threat by its subsequent actions. Eisenhower nullified even the modest commitments made in Geneva, declaring that “the United States did not participate in the agreements and is not bound by them.” And Senator John F. Kennedy said: “This (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) is our creation. We cannot refuse it.” 71. Already in 1956, the International Commission for Monitoring the Implementation of the Decisions of the Geneva Conference noted that the agreements were being violated by South Vietnam, which was receiving military assistance from the United States72.

From the first months after the Geneva Conference, the Eisenhower government headed for sabotage of a political settlement of the Vietnam problem. It provided the South Vietnamese puppet regime with generous Thng nht l nh cao thng li ca dn tc Vit Nam, Dng Trung Quc, Bo Lao ng cui tun, S 18 - Ch nht 05/05/2013, Vol.12.

L Xun Khoa. Vit Nam 1945-1995, Tp I. Bethesda, MD: Tin Rng, 2004. T. 444.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P. 235.

help and all kinds of support. The famous message from American President Ngo Dinh Diem on October 23, 1954 stated that the United States would help Saigon in its fight against “subversion and aggression.”

In fact, Washington promised assistance in the civil war between the government of the North and the government of Saigon, into which it pushed the South Vietnamese puppets.

American officials later repeatedly referred to this message from Eisenhower, which they believed was "fundamental to relief"

South Vietnam. However, attempts to find a “legal basis” for intervention in the internal affairs of an independent state did not change the aggressive nature of US policy in Southeast Asia73.

On September 8, 1954, at a conference on Southeast Asia, held at the initiative of the United States with the participation of the United States, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand, an agreement was signed that became the basis for the creation of the SEATO bloc. According to the text of the treaty, the three countries of Indochina Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia fell into the so-called “protected zone” of Southeast Asia.

In December 1954, the United States and France signed a document allowing American military advisers to participate in the training of the army of the State of Vietnam. America did gradually expand its influence in southern Vietnam instead of France. In January 1955, the United States officially and directly provided military assistance to the State of Vietnam. US Foreign Secretary Dulles said: “Investment in South Vietnam is respectful.

We have no choice but Diem."74

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, P.213.

Nguyn Khc Vin, Nam Vit Nam: t Mt trn dn tc gii phng min Nam Vit Nam n Chnh ph Cch mng Lm thi, H Ni, 1970, T.110-139.

Since January 1955, the United States, violating Articles 16 and 17a of the Geneva Agreements, increased military assistance to the Saigon regime. From 1955 to 1960, American military supplies amounted, according to official data, to $571.3 million for “defense activities.”

Incited by the United States in August 1955, the ruler of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, publicly refused to hold general elections to unify Vietnam. In April 1956, France withdrew from South Vietnam and the American Military Advisory Group joined the training of Saigon's army.

In fact, no one supported Vietnam’s desire for unification; they were all more satisfied with the status of a divided country. Major powers (including the USSR and China) were interested in maintaining a divided Vietnam.75

In other words, the powers of the socialist bloc did not provide the DRV with the international support that he was counting on.

In such a situation, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam tried to restore trade relations between the two domains in order to help restore the normal life of the peoples.” But the State of Vietnam refused to even discuss this proposal76.

After the signing of the Geneva Accords, there were three main military forces in South Vietnam: the Nationalist Party of Vietnam (including the Cao Daiism and Hoa Chaoism sects); States of Vietnam and Viet Minh groups remaining in South Vietnam. France estimated in 1954 that 60-90% of rural South Vietnam was under Viet Minh control77.

During this period, the Viet Minh military force remaining in South Vietnam was estimated by the United States to have more than 100,000 soldiers who were effectively underground. They carried out work among the population, social programs “Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960”. The Pentagon Papers. 1971, pp. 242–314.

H S Thnh- Trn Th Nhung, B t lnh Min, Nh xut bn Tr, Thnh ph H Ch Minh, 1998, T.56.

Nguyn Khc Vin, Nam Vit Nam: t Mt trn dn tc gii phng min Nam Vit Nam n Chnh ph Cch mng Lm thi, H Ni, 1970, T. 239-243.

the government of Ngo Dinh Diem, for example, “land reform”, etc., but they were always ready for armed activity, since they had caches of weapons. The Viet Minh never recognized the legitimacy of the State of Vietnam regime. The Viet Minh carried out terrorist attacks against representatives of the South Vietnamese administration. Since the end of 1955, officials of the Republic of Vietnam were killed for political reasons under the name of “killing evil people and spies and detectives.” 78 By the end of 1959, the situation in South Vietnam was actually unstable, the Viet Minh in South Vietnam actually began a guerrilla war. Under these conditions, the government of the DRV decided to provide all possible assistance to the forces of the south who were fighting against the Saigon administration under the slogan “overthrow the domination of the United States and its accomplices” 79.

Since the efforts of political negotiations for the reunification of Vietnam did not achieve any results, therefore, from that point on, armed struggle became the main direction.

In order to develop and improve the national economy under socialism and prepare for the expected, inevitable war, in the north the Communist Party of Vietnam reorganized its state system (including the armed forces) within the framework of the socialist model along the lines of countries such as the USSR and China80.

A system of state centralized economic development planning was introduced. In November 1958, the Communist Party of Vietnam set itself a plan for economic and cultural development, improving socialism (including agricultural cooperation,0 for the period from 1958 to

to 196081 Trn Vn Giu, Min Nam gi vng thnh ng, tp 5, Nh xut bn Khoa hc x hi, H Ni 1978, T.201.

Nguyn Khc Vin, Nam Vit Nam: t Mt trn dn tc gii phng min Nam Vit Nam n Chnh ph Cch mng Lm thi, H Ni, 1970, T. 320.

T hai chic my bay b cp, L Thnh Chn, 04/27/2007, Bo Ngi Lao ng in t, T.34.

Qun s (QLVNCH) tp 4. NXb i Nam. Chng 3: Cc din tin trong vic hnh thnh qun i quc gia. T. 202 In the south, the US government provided great assistance to the Republic of Vietnam with reforms in the development of many areas, such as literacy, development, land reform, rural development, infrastructure construction, industrial development, administrative reform, and legal system construction. The Republic of Vietnam has achieved some important successes: economic recovery and development of health care systems, development in education, cultural development, people's lives have improved. In land reform, Ngo Dinh Diem, who became president in 1955, avoided measures that he considered to be a robbery of land in North Vietnam. He instructed local officials to pay for the excess land rather than confiscate82. The government then divided this land to sell to farmers without land, and they received a loan without interest to purchase this land for up to 6 years83.

However, the land reform that Diem proposed did not receive support from southern farmers. While the Viet Minh cut tax breaks for large landowners, eased debt, and confiscated land to distribute to the poor, Ngo Dinh Diem re-established a landowning class. By the end of Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​reform, 2% of landowners owned 45% of the fields, while only 73% of small farmers owned 15% of the fields, and about half of the peasants remained landless. 84 As a result, 75% of citizens supported the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, 20 % were neutral, only 5% supported the Ngo Dinh Diem regime. Regarding the assessment of the South Vietnamese regime, American professor Noam Chomsky said: “The government of South Vietnam became a shelter for the Vietnamese who supported France and did not T hai chic my bay b cp, L Thnh Chn, 04/27/2007, Bo Ngi Lao ng in t .T.67.

–  –  –

trong giai on mi, ngy 10-9-1960, Vn kin ng ton tp, tp 21, Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, thng 10/2002, T.

Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954-1960, Boston, Beacon Press, 1971, pp. 56-79.

fought for the independence of their country. The government of South Vietnam has no basis and no stronghold among the people. It goes in the direction of exploiting the rural people and the lower classes, in fact it is a continuation of French colonialism.” Even the Pentagon also noted: “If it were not for US support, Diem would not have been able to consolidate power in South Vietnam during the period 1955-1956. South Vietnam is essentially an invention of the United States."86.

With the help of the United States, the government of the Republic of Vietnam carried out an anti-communist campaign that did not take into account the psychological characteristics and interests of the population, as well as the historical circumstances in Vietnam at that time.

The harshest measures were applied to any protesters. Since 1955

By 1960, according to the Republic of Vietnam, 48,250 people were imprisoned, about 24,000 were wounded in skirmishes, 80 thousand were shot or killed, about 500 thousand were sent to concentration camps. This changed the social pattern, reduced public trust in Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​government, and encouraged Viet Minh soldiers to create a battle zone in the forest.87

President Ngo Dinh Diem's ​​religious policies also caused dissatisfaction because he supported Catholics while most Vietnamese in the south maintained Buddhist traditions. Therefore, religious contradictions subsequently also became one of the driving forces that prepared the coup of the armed forces of the Republic of Vietnam against President Ngo Dinh Diem in November 196388.

Robert S.Mc.Namara: Nhn li qu kh. Tn thm kch v nhng bi hc Vit Nam, Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, H Ni, 1995, T.43-44.

Tng thng Si Gn c Nguyn Vn Thiu v con ng chin bi, Bo Cng an Nhn dn, 04/30/2010. Trch Nguyn Vn Ngn, nguyn c vn c bit ca Tng thng Nguyn Vn Thiu.

Dupuis R. Ernest, Dupuis Trevor N.. World history of wars (in 4 vols.). Book 4 (1925-1997). SPb., M., “Poligon - AST”, 1998. P.493.

In the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, most of the officers graduated from the National Military School in Dalat 89 and occupied key positions in the military service, most of them came from the middle class, some studied abroad, adapted the Western way of life. Another reason why the Republic of Vietnam attracted large numbers of young people to join the army was American support. It was this US support that provided the soldiers in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam with a stable material life, making them believe in the government, which was supported by a superpower. But the disadvantage of this policy was that when the United States reduced aid (for example, at the request of the opposition and the anti-war movement in the United States itself 90), the soldiers lost faith in the regime of the Republic of Vietnam.

In early 1957, the Republic of Vietnam applied to join the United Nations (UN). The United States and Western countries supported it, but the Soviet Union and some other countries opposed it and vetoed the application.

From 1954 to 1960, the United States provided $7 billion in aid to South Vietnam, including $1,500 million in military aid91. In 1955, the United States spent $414 million to help rearm and train the Republic of Vietnam's military, including 170,000 military personnel and 75,000 police forces. 80% of the military budget of the Ngo Dinh Diem regime came from the United States. 800 trains and vehicles were also supplied92.

Cecil B. Currey. Chin thng bng mi gi. Nh xut bn Th gii, T. 345.

The movement against the involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War began in the U.S. with demonstrations in 1964 and grew in strength in later years. The U.S. became polarized between those who advocated continued involvement in Vietnam and those who wanted peace. “Peaceful Antiwar Protests Held Here And in Other Cities Across the Nation,” John Darnton, New York Times, May 14, 1972, P.30.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, P.245.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, pp. 247-284.

The United States began to build military bases, such as the airports of Bien Hoa, Tan Son Nhat, Son Cha, and Vung Tau. There were several American military missions in South Vietnam. The Military Assistance Advisory Mission had 200 consultants and staff in 1954; by 1960 this number had risen to nearly 2,000, including 800 military advisers.

During the period 1960-1965, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam publicly supported the communists in the South and began to infiltrate South Vietnam.

The communists in South Vietnam created the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the National Liberation Army94. Meanwhile, the US helped the Republic of Vietnam pursue its "special war" strategy or "Staley-Taylor" plan. The plan, which was prepared by two economists - Eugene Staley (Stanford Research Institute - Stanford) and General Maxwell Taylor, was announced in May 1961. In accordance with the schedule, the plan was implemented within 4 years (1961-1965). Its content was limited to “pacifying the south” for 18 months, providing the army of the Republic of Vietnam on the battlefield96. However, the National Liberation Army still dominated the battlefield. By the end of 1960, the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam controlled 600/1,298 villages in the south, 904/3,829 villages in the central coastal plains, and 320/5,721 villages in Taing Guen, central highlands97.

During this period, the USSR, although it felt its strength, was still unable to provide assistance to North Vietnam comparable to the US injections into South Vietnam. But since February 1965, when the USSR and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam signed an agreement, Nguyn Tin Hng. Khi ng minh tho chy. 2005. T. 160-165.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, P.329.

Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975), Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975. - M.: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - P. 176.

Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975) - M.: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - P. 225.

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, V.35.

the scale of Soviet assistance increased noticeably. This made it possible.

modernize the Vietnamese People's Army, equip it with new weapons, including heavy weapons, create engineering troops to meet the requirements of modern warfare. The Vietnamese People's Army regularly conducted large military exercises, practicing tactics to fight the US armed forces.

China, which competed with the Soviet Union for the leadership of socialism, also did not want its role to be less than an ideological opponent.

The PRC helped the Democratic Republic of Vietnam during this period even more than the Soviet Union99. The PRC called on the Democratic Republic of Vietnam to fight for the liberation of the South without fear of the American army100.

In the summer of 1962, China provided the DRV with enough guns to equip 200 battalions. China agreed to send volunteers to northern Vietnam if American troops crossed the 17th parallel. From 1956 to 1963, China moved about 320 million yuan worth of weapons to the north. 101 In December 1964, the Chinese Minister of Defense visited Hanoi and signed a treaty of friendship and military cooperation between China and Vietnam.

For its part, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam maintained good relations with China and with the Soviet Union in order to attract as much military assistance as possible. However, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam did not want to be strategically dependent on any of its allies. The DRV preferred to make decisions on its own when to strike and when to negotiate.

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam received weapons and support from its allies, but expected to fight it itself with human resources.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, pp. 317-329.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P.218.

U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, The Human Cost of Communism in Vietnam (1972), R.49.

Wiesner, Louis (1988), Victims and Survivors: Displaced Persons and Other War Victims in Viet-Nam, 1954–1975 Greenwood Press, pp. 318–319.

The United States, in turn, constantly increased military assistance to the Republic of Vietnam, which produced tangible results. Military operations between the government army of South Vietnam and the People's Liberation Army were carried out with varying success.

The latter, in addition, actively used terrorist methods, aimed primarily at government officials; they killed both the corrupt (to gain popularity) and the honest (to intimidate people and show the impotence of the Saigon regime). His targets were also representatives of the middle class - doctors, social workers, teachers. In 1960 alone, 1,400 government officials and 102 civilians were killed.

The US increased its involvement in the Vietnam War and in February 1965, the US Air Force bombed North Vietnam. Under these conditions, the Vietnamese People's Army of the North began to advance towards South Vietnam along the Truong Son Highway (Ho Chi Minh Trail)103 to strengthen the forces of the liberation army104.

After nearly two years of fighting in the Special War (Special War)105, the liberation army forces have gained experience in fighting the "transport helicopter" and "transport armored vehicle" tactics, the main tactics of the US and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam in the "Special War106". The "helicopter transport" and "armored vehicle transport" tactics appear to be part of the Staley-Taylor plan.

The Ho Chi Minh Trail (English: The Ho Chi Minh trail, Vietnamese: ng Trng Sn) is the name of a series of land and water transport routes with a total length of over 20 thousand km in Laos and Cambodia, used by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam for transfer of military materials and troops to South Vietnam. It is one of the key factors that ensured the military victory of North Vietnam.

Corell J. The Ho Chi Minh Trail (US Air Force Magazine, November 2005), P.12.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 276.

Zhukov Yu. A. and Sharapov V. V., People at War. Vietnam diaries. M., Politizdat, 1972., P. 213.

The "helicopter transport" and "armored vehicle transport" tactics107 were tactics in which helicopters and armored vehicles were used to quickly maneuver forces, surprise and destroy guerrilla forces of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam. From early 1961 until 1963, this strategy brought many victories, and resulted in damage to the guerrilla forces.

However, since 1963 this strategy was abandoned. In 1963, there was a coup organized by a group of generals dissatisfied with the leadership of President Ngo Dinh Diem. The US supported this. It was from this time that the government of the Republic of Vietnam fell into a serious leadership crisis with 14 consecutive coups within a year and a half. The situation stabilized when the National Leadership Committee, led by two generals Nguyen Van Thieu and Nguyen Cao Ky, took control (in June 1965)108.

In March 1965, US Marines landed in Da Nang to fight directly on the southern front. From this time on, a new period began in the second Indochina War.

In the early years, the armed struggle of the South Vietnamese underground was a systematic terror aimed primarily at government officials; they killed both the corrupt (to gain popularity) and the honest (to intimidate people and show the impotence of the Saigon regime). His targets were also representatives of the middle class - doctors, social workers, teachers. In 1960 alone, 1,400 government officials and civilians were killed109.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 199.

Liven V.A., The Vietnam War and the internal political struggle in the USA, Naukova Dumka Publishing House, Kyiv, 1972, pp. 111-123.

Anthony James Joes. The War for South Viet Nam, 1954-1975. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, p. 49.

2.2. Full-scale US intervention (1964-1973) In 1964, the US, seeing the weakness of both the army and the government of South Vietnam, adopted a new strategy, which was called the “Joint War” (in South Vietnam) (1964-1969). ). The United States introduced a direct expedition to Vietnam. This is the most difficult phase of the Vietnam War. known as Joint Warfare. This was a difficult decision for the United States. On the one hand, the US Army had to intervene to destroy the armed forces of the liberation army; on the other hand, they had to contain the war within Vietnam, prevent it from spreading, and prevent direct interference in the war of the countries of the socialist camp. The great allies of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the Soviet Union, and China also sought to help the Democratic Republic of Vietnam fight the United States. They saw that this was a very good chance for the United States to get stuck in Vietnam and suffer various losses here 111.

The Republic of Vietnam welcomed the landing of American troops, as it gave them hope of victory. However, the government of the Republic of Vietnam was now always required to consult with the United States before making decisions.

According to the US government, the Republic of Vietnam was attacked by North Vietnam, which was contrary to the Geneva Agreement. Thus, the reason why the US government began its military presence in South Vietnam was to protect the Republic of Vietnam in accordance with the terms of the SEATO treaty, which the US and the Republic of Vietnam signed.

The US President had the right to provide military assistance to South Vietnam in accordance with the provisions of the US Constitution and in accordance with the SEATO Treaty, which was approved by the US Senate. In addition, the US Congress 10

Lch s Khng chin chng M cu nc. Tp 4. Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn. T. 48.

Zhukov Yu. A. and Sharapov V. V., People at War. Vietnam diaries. M., Politizdat, 1972., P.236.

August 1964 adopted a resolution allowing American troops to operate in Vietnam, and supported the actions of the US President regarding Vietnam112.

In the Vietnam plan, which was developed in 1965, US Deputy Secretary of Defense John McNaughton listed US goals in the war113:

70% - To avoid an embarrassing defeat for the US (for our reputation as a protector);

20% - To protect (South Vietnam) from China;

10% - So that the people of South Vietnam can have a better life.

Because of these political goals, US military involvement has steadily increased. First, the US said that if North Vietnam did not stop supplying the liberation army, they would bomb. But the DRV government, despite pressure from the United States, continued to supply South Vietnam. Secondly, in August 1964, the first incident occurred in the Gulf of Tonkin 114. On August 2, 1964, the US destroyer Maddox, while conducting reconnaissance, collided with three North Vietnamese naval torpedo boats. This resulted in a naval battle in which more than 280 Maddox destroyers fired 3-inch and 5-inch shells and four F-8 Crusader fighters bombarded North Vietnamese destroyers. One American aircraft was damaged, three North Vietnamese naval torpedo boats were damaged, four Liven V.A., The Vietnam War and the internal political struggle in the USA, Naukova Dumka Publishing House, Kyiv, 1972, P. 265.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P. 456-457.

The Tonkin Incident is the collective name for two episodes that occurred in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin in August 1964 involving the US and North Vietnamese navies. The consequence of the incident was the adoption by the US Congress of the so-called Tonkin Resolution, which provided President Lyndon Johnson with legal grounds for the direct use of the country's armed forces in the Vietnam War. // Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - P. 324.

North Vietnamese sailors were killed and six wounded; the American side had no casualties115.

On August 5, 1964, following a second similar incident in the Gulf of Tonkin, the US Navy bombed several important seaports in northern Vietnam.

On August 7, 1964, 3 days after the second Gulf of Tonkin incident, the US Congress passed the Southeast Asia Resolution. It legitimized US activities in Vietnam and gave US President Lyndon Johnson permission, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, to use traditional military forces in Southeast Asia. In particular, the resolution authorized the President to do everything necessary to assist “any member of the Southeast Asian Collective Defense Treaty”116. This included the fate of the armed forces117.

Incidents in the Gulf of Tonkin in August 1964 led to the US Congress delegating to the US government to Lyndon Johnson the authority to conduct all operations of the war, if necessary without congressional approval. Shortly thereafter, the US began bombing North Vietnam. To support the bombing, the United States created military bases and airports, to protect which a large number of Marines arrived in Vietnam. Thus, American troops gradually replaced the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, and they became a significant and major force to maintain security in the areas under their control 118.

With the escalation of hostilities, the situation for the North Vietnamese residents became increasingly difficult and stressful, even the troops were not enough

Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, T. 167.

Craig A. Lockard, "Meeting Yesterday Head-on: The Vietnam War in Vietnamese, American, and World History", Journal of World History, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1994, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 227–270.

Marshall, Kathryn. In the Combat Zone: An Oral History of American Women in Vietnam, 1966–1975 (1987), P. 12.

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn

Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, T.171.

food. People from cities were evacuated to the countryside to avoid bombs; food was issued with coupons. Young women were expected to participate in production and military training 119.

In such conditions, the state of North Vietnam sought to raise the morale of the people. All participated in the mass organizations of workers of the Vietnamese Communist Party. These grassroots organizations played a role in maintaining morale and confidence.

The economic life of the inhabitants in the south was also very unstable, they suffered from shelling, bombing, and the spraying of toxic chemicals that were sprayed to destroy crops by US proxies.

The People's Army of Vietnam's Air Defense Forces (VDA) could not compete with the US Air Force (Air Force) and Navy (Navy Forces) and had to make efforts to protect very important targets such as Hanoi, Haiphong, major cities, important traffic points 120. By 1965, air defense forces in the north were equipped with modern weapons provided by the Soviet Union.

Soon after American troops landed in South Vietnam, the military situation changed in favor of the United States and the Republic of Vietnam.

The South Vietnamese Liberation Army was repulsed and pursued by American aircraft. It was decided to leave large detachments in the countryside and in the mountains. In the delta, they simply left small detachments and organized a popular battle of partisans 121.

American forces launched a search-and-kill campaign to hunt down and destroy liberation army units. This campaign often resulted in civilian casualties due to the fact that Americans did not know who the ordinary

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn

Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, T. 172.

Marshall, Kathryn. In the Combat Zone: An Oral History of American Women in Vietnam, 1966–1975 (1987), pp. 31.

McMahon, Robert J. Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays (1995) textbook.

residents, and some from the People's Liberation Army. The guerrilla forces of the liberation army also expanded their offensive not only for military purposes, but also to attack the organizational structure of the local administration of the Republic of Vietnam. They also used special forces that operated in major cities, in which these special forces carried out attacks on US military personnel in public places, anti-communist political figures of the Republic of Vietnam and US officials122.

In 1966 - 1967 hostilities between the two sides took place mainly in the southeast. The Department of American combatant commanders carried out three major campaigns to defeat the PLA bases: the Cedar Falls campaign - a strike into the Iron Triangle of Cu Chi County, where the liberation army had established a system of tunnels used as a staging area for infiltration into Saigon; Attleboro Campaign - Strike in Duong Minh Chau War Zones; “Junction City” campaign - a strike in military zones where the headquarters of the South Vietnamese Liberation Army was located 123.

The Junction City campaign was especially large, when the United States mobilized up to 45,000 troops and hundreds of helicopters with the intention of covering the leading structure of the front and destroying the main base of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam. Despite the fact that the United States mobilized huge forces, it did not produce results: the leadership structure, warehouses, and bases of the liberation army remained safe.

After 3 years of direct struggle with the American military, the liberation army's casualties increased a lot; if this situation continued, the liberation army would not be able to win. In order to prevent this, to create a guideline for the war, the Politburo of the working people

Hi k, honh Linh Mu - Tm s tng lu vong, H Ni: Nh xut bn Cng an Nhn dn, 2001, T.45.

Hi k, honh Linh Mu - Tm s tng lu vong, H Ni: Nh xut bn Cng an Nhn dn, 2001, T. 59-65.

Vietnamese Party in Hanoi decided to launch the Tet Offensive in 1968. 124 On January 28, 1967, Vietnamese Foreign Minister Nguyen Duy Trinh stated the position and conditions for dialogue between Vietnam and the SHA: “Only after the United States unconditionally stops bombing and all other acts against Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the United States and I can talk" 125.

On August 2, 1967, US President Johnson sent a letter to DRV President Ho Chi Minh stating: “We have attempted over the past several years, in various forms and through a number of channels, to convey to you and your colleagues our desire to achieve a peaceful settlement.

For some reason, these efforts did not achieve any results."126

President Johnson promised to stop bombing in North Vietnam and stop the troop buildup in South Vietnam when North Vietnam stopped sending troops and military supplies in support of the liberation army. However, both sides did not find a common language to reduce the intensity of the war. The US rejected all the conditions that North Vietnam set (the US must stop bombing north of the 17th parallel) and continued to escalate the war, and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam also refused all the conditions that the US offered127.

It was only after the Tet Offensive or New Year's Offensive in 1968, long planned by the Politburo of the PTV Central Committee, that the United States accepted new unilateral concessions and accepted North Vietnam's terms. If 1967 became the year of decisions in Vietnam, then 1968 can be called the culminating year.

The New Year's Offensive was one of the largest military campaigns in Vietnam, which began on January 30, 1968, by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People's Army forces against the forces of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 191.

Nguyn c Phng, Chin tranh Vit Nam Ton Tp, Toronto, Ontario: Nh xut bn Lng Vn, 2001, Vol. 78.

H Khang, Tt Mu Thn 1968: Bc ngot ln ca cuc khng chin chng M cu nc, H Ni: Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 2005, Vol. 76.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P. 354.

United States and its allies. It was a surprise attack against military and civilian commands and control centers throughout South Vietnam. The name comes from the Tet holiday, the Vietnamese New Year.

The communists launched a wave of attacks on January 30 into the I and II Corps tactical zones of South Vietnam. The next day, the offensive unfolded throughout the country and was well coordinated. The efforts of more than 80,000 communist troops were supported by the striking population of more than 100 cities and towns, including 36 of the 44 provincial capitals, five of the six autonomous cities, 72 of the 245 district cities129. The offensive was the largest military operation undertaken by either side up to that point in the war.

However, in addition to success, mistakes of the liberation army in terms of combat were also revealed. When planning a major offensive, the liberation army underestimated the real situation. The plan was based on underestimating the enemy's ability and overestimating one's own capabilities, so the liberation army suffered heavy losses. When planning the strategy for the 1968 New Year's offensive, the liberation army's combat commanders did not identify what was essentially the political objective of the attack.

The main goal was a big blow in order to create a resonance for peace and force the enemy to negotiate130.

The mistake the Liberation Army made again was that they were not flexible to change according to the situation. Seeing that the goal was not achieved in the first attack, they launched a second strike in May, a third in August, when the plan was exposed and the enemy was ready for a counterattack Dictionary of the Vietnam War / Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 342.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, p. 231.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, p. 234.

After the New Year's offensive, the liberation army was driven out of major cities. Military units suffered heavy losses, and many underground political forces in urban areas were exposed and destroyed. The troops of the liberation army avoided fighting in the south and retreated into the combat zone of the countryside, mountains, and some went beyond the borders in Laos and Cambodia. Only by 1970 did the armed forces of the liberation army recover again. As the military situation became calmer, the military forces of the Republic of Vietnam had additional time to eliminate serious damage in 1968. However, during the campaign to pacify the village, which was carried out by the Americans, significant forces of rebels and partisans were destroyed131. This was the reason for the US and the Republic of Vietnam to believe that the Tet offensive had failed.

On the other hand, the liberation army had reason to believe that the 1968 New Year's Offensive was a strategic victory because it had "defeated the will of the American invasion" and the US was forced to begin an early withdrawal from Vietnam.

The New Year's offensive not only caused damage to the warring parties, but also brought a lot of casualties among the population, for example, the massacre in My Lai 133, the executions in Saigon, the massacre in Hue 134 during the offensive.

This major offensive showed the United States that the introduction of troops increased tension in American society, and the war became protracted.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, pp. 235-237.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, p. 245.

The My Lai massacre (Vietnamese: Thm st Sn M) was a war crime committed by American soldiers in the village community of My Lai in Quang Ngai Province in South Vietnam, which gained worldwide fame in 1969 during the Vietnam War. // Trent Angers, The Forgotten Hero of My Lai: The Hugh Thompson Story. Acadian House Publishing, 1999, pp. 219-220.

The Hue massacre was the massacre of residents of the city of Hue by the North Vietnamese Army and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam in 1968 during the Vietnam War. // James Willbanks. Tet - What Really Happened at Hue. // Vietnam Magazine, February 2011, R.11.

Politicians in the US Congress began to put pressure on the government to reconsider military agreements, demanding the removal of the authorization to give all rights to the government to wage war without approval, politicians forced the government to resolve the war through negotiations135.

The American public expressed impatience and distrust of its army, demanding an end to the war and the withdrawal of its troops, believing that this war was dirty 136. Even the leaders of the US government were also divided on what to do next. The president's leading adviser and even President Johnson bowed down and decided to stop increasing troops and negotiate137.

On March 31, 1968, for the first time in the history of the war, the US government was forced to concede and begin evacuating troops. President Lyndon Johnson announced an end to the bombing of North Vietnam, a willingness to negotiate an end to the war without adding more troops, and declined to run for another term. The new president, Richard Nixon, won the election largely thanks to promises to end the war.

However, the problem at that time for the United States was that this would not be a victorious war and how to leave without losing face138.

The retreat of American troops in the country was irreversible and therefore also meant that the strategy of the war was changing, it was entering a new stage when the government and army of South Vietnam must fight on their own without US expeditionary forces. From the point of view of long-term strategy, this was a big disadvantage for the Republic of Vietnam, despite Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, p.255.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), pp. 142.

Robert Strange McNamara, Looking into the Past: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam, Scientific Publishing Center "Ladomir", Moscow, p. 256.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P. 143.

their army could not compare with the American expeditionary forces in terms of modern equipment139.

Period 1969-1972 represented the period of the “post-New Year's offensive” or the period of “Vietnamization”140, when the United States gradually withdrew troops from Vietnam, but continued to provide military assistance to South Vietnam. The US helped the Republic of Vietnam build an army according to American standards, leaving the weapons that the US had at 141 military bases. The US maintained maximum power for the Republic of Vietnam through air power.

In the summer of 1969, in the Hawaiian Islands, US President Richard Nixon and President of the Republic of Vietnam Nguyen Van Thieu met to discuss the withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam. The United States wanted to call this process “De-Americanization,” but the Republic of Vietnam objected, not wanting to admit that this was an American war. Ultimately, both sides agreed to call this process "Vietnamization." Vietnamization was the policy of the Richard Nixon administration to retreat U.S. involvement in the Second Indochina War through a program to expand the equipment and training of South Vietnamese forces while steadily reducing the number of U.S. combat troops.

The situation in southern Vietnam was relatively quiet in 1969-1971, the liberation army actively stockpiled food and weapons at bases in Laos, Cambodia and mountainous areas where the troops of the Republic of Vietnam and the United States did not reach. The Liberation Army used the border areas of Laos and Cambodia as a neutral zone and springboard to attack the forces of Ngun gc, nguyn nhn v bi hc trong chin tranh Vit Nam, Bin bn Quc hi M, ti liu lu tr ti Ban tng kt chin lc - B Quc phng, 1973, T. 34.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 321.

Marilyn Young, Vietnam Wars: 1945-1990, Harper Perennial, September 25,1991, pp. 233-235.

–  –  –

Nam, t.5, T. 12-14.

USA - Republic of Vietnam 143. In order to weaken the forces of the PLA, the “Cambodian Campaign” was carried out and was opened to end this situation.

"Cambodian campaign. The goal of the campaign was to destroy the People's Army of Vietnam (PAV) and the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (NSLV) or Viet Cong troops who found themselves in Cambodia's eastern border regions. A change in the Cambodian government brought the opportunity to destroy the base areas in 1970, when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was overthrown and replaced by the pro-American general Lon Nol144.

The Sihanouk government, the DRV and China signed agreements that allowed the presence of DRV military bases on the Cambodia-Vietnam border, while allowing Chinese support for Vietnam through Cambodian ports. And in return, Cambodia received compensation from China in that China bought Cambodian rice at high prices. Faced with such a situation, the DRV found itself supporting Sihanouk and the Khmer Rouge 145 against Lon Nol. At the same time, Lon Nol, the Prime Minister of Cambodia, received support from the United States146.

In April 1970, some 40,000 soldiers and 31,000 Republic of Vietnam troops attacked a base at the South Vietnamese Central Bureau in Thai Ninh Province on the Cambodian border, but the leaders of the South Vietnamese Central Bureau and most of the liberation army troops moved deeper into Cambodian territory. Although the US claimed to have killed about 2,000 liberation army troops, it did not kill the South Vietnamese Central Bureau leaders. On June 30, 1970, President Nixon ordered troops to withdraw from this battle after active anti-war protests by students in Gabriel Kolko: Gii phu mt cuc chin tranh, bin dch Nguyn Tn Cu, Nh xut bn. Qun i nhn dn, H Ni, 2004, T.365.

Gi-dp A Am-t Li Phn quyt v VN-Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, T. 360.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 112.

Gi-dp A Am-t Li Phn quyt v VN-Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, T. 361-366.

USA. The Lon Nol government and the Republic of Vietnam could not cope with the liberation army due to the lack of US troops147.

Liberation Army divisions, together with the Khmer Rouge, ousted the Lon Nol government, gained control of the eastern and northeastern provinces of Cambodia and expanded the base connecting with Laos. North Vietnam also provided weapons, military equipment, and equipment to help the Khmer Rouge build new military bases.

The territory under the control of the liberation army and the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia became a large rear area for the liberation army148.

The "Cambodian Campaign" was a big mistake in the US strategy 150. They did not destroy the enemy, but instead created a chance for them to develop military forces. The Liberation Army has already been able to purchase food and medicine on Cambodian territory and effectively equip its troops. Previously, the liberation army had to wait thousands of kilometers away for this source of help from North Vietnam.

Therefore, in February 1971, 21,000 troops of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Vietnam, supported by 10,000 American troops and the US Air Force 151, carried out Operation Lam Son 719 (against the village of Lam Son in North Vietnam - the birthplace of Vietnamese national hero Le Loy). The number 719 included the year of the operation - 1971, as well as the direction (road) number - 9,152. The purpose of this operation was Gabriel Kolko: Gii phu mt cuc chin tranh, bin dch Nguyn Tn Cu, Nh xut bn. Qun i nhn dn, H Ni, 2004, T. 377.

Gabriel Kolko: Gii phu mt cuc chin tranh, bin dch Nguyn Tn Cu, Nh xut bn. Qun i nhn dn, H Ni, 2004, T. 378-389.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 211.

Yesterday Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea. Today Grenada, Lebanon. Tomorrow... The crimes of American imperialism continue / comp. Pogorzhelsky D.M., Politizdat M., 1985. P.143.

Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - P. 631.

Davidson F. B. The Vietnam War (1946-1975) = Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975. - M: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - P. 816.

was the destruction, destruction of the system for reloading products and guns from the Khe Sanh combat base (Quang Tri province) to lower Laos153.

However, the United States and the Republic of Vietnam lost in this operation, the number of helicopters destroyed or damaged during the operation shocked the US Army aviation specialists and caused a re-evaluation of the basic airmobile doctrine 154. There were several reasons why the United States and the Republic of Vietnam failed to carry out this operation. Firstly, their military enemy was ready to repel the attack, since one of the best-equipped PLA bases was based in Laos. Secondly, there was no uniform coordination of the military forces of the United States and the Republic of Vietnam. After the Army of the Republic of Vietnam failed to breach Liberation Army bases in Laos and Cambodia, a new major Liberation Force offensive called the 155 Spring Offensive began in early 1972.

This was a period when negotiations to resolve the conflict had been ongoing in Paris for several years, starting in 1968. Initially, only the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the United States participated; it then expanded to a quadripartite conference, adding the Republic of Vietnam and the Provisional Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. In fact, the main negotiators were the DRV and the USA. However, during 1968-1972, the conference did not produce any results156.

Melson, Charles (1991). U.S. Marines In Vietnam: The War That Would Not End, 1971-1973. History and Museums Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. R. 32.

In the 101st Airborne Division, for example, 84 aircraft were destroyed and another 430 were damaged by 154.

The combined losses of US and Republic of Vietnam helicopters amounted to 168 destroyed and 618 damaged helicopters. During Operation Lam Son 719, American helicopters flew more than 160,000 sorties and 19 US Army aviators were killed, 59 wounded, and 11 missing.

South Vietnamese helicopters flew an additional 5,500 missions. US Air Force tactical aircraft flew more than 8,000 combat missions during the invasion and fired 20,000 tons of bombs and napalm. B-52 bombers launched another 1,358 sorties and dropped 32,000 tons of 154 ammunition.

Seven US aircraft were shot down over southern Laos, six by the US Air Force and one by the US Navy // Simon Dunstan. Armor of the Vietnam Wars. London, Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1985. R. 6.10.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P.380.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P. 382-388.

On the one hand, the DRV's goal in this conference was to force American troops to withdraw from Vietnam and the government of the Republic of Vietnam to resign. On the other hand, the United States believed that the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was only pretending to agree to coalition governments, but in fact intended to completely take control of all of Vietnam157. The US insisted that it would withdraw from Vietnam only when the People's Army of Vietnam simultaneously withdraws from South Vietnam, and the Nguyen Van Thieu government has the right to exist. However, the parties had to look for compromise solutions. The United States was pushed to this by public sentiment in the country, and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam agreed to the existence of the Nguyen Van Thieu government in South Vietnam 158. However, it was the South Vietnamese side that opposed the agreement and refused to sign it. Those. negotiations again reached a dead end159.

To put pressure on the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, the United States in Vietnam launched the military operation “Linebacker II”, which was also called “Christmas bombing”, since it practically coincided with the Christmas holidays on December 24-25.). The operation began on the evening of December 18, 1972 with a simultaneous attack on the main airfields of the North Vietnamese army.

The United States used a very extreme and cruel measure, which is not accepted in general military standards:

The use of B-52s bombed and destroyed a number of residential areas in major cities, causing heavy casualties among residents161. This operation severely disrupted infrastructure, transportation systems, and industry. Stanley Karnow (Winner of the Pulitzer Prize), Vietnam: a History (2nd edition), Penguin Books; 2nd edition, 1997, R.

Stanley Karnow (Winner of the Pulitzer Prize), Vietnam: a History (2nd edition), Penguin Books; 2nd edition, 1997, R.444-446.

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), R. 131.

Kolesnik N.N.. On the participation of Soviet military specialists in the Vietnam War (Russian). Publishing house: “Exam”, 2005, P.35.

George C. Herring, Cuc chin tranh di ngy nht ca nc M, Nh xut bn Chnh tr quc gia, H Ni, 1998, Vol. 35 of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, but did not change its position in the agreements. On December 29, Operation Linebacker II was terminated. During it, 100 thousand tons of bombs were dropped on Vietnam162. The books then call it Operation Dien Bien Phu in the Air, as a way of expressing the victory of the Democratic Republic's air defense in this operation163.

At the same time as the bombing of North Vietnam, President Nixon visited the Soviet Union and China. Both the Soviet Union and China, on their part, feared that the United States would be able to enter into an alliance with one of them, so it would become an alliance with one side or the other, so they wanted the Vietnam problem to be finally resolved. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam criticized that the Soviet Union and the Chinese accepted the visit of the US President164.

On January 27, 1973, the Paris Agreement was signed and was considered an important victory for the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On March 29, 1973, the last American troops left Vietnam, and all military intervention by the United States in the Vietnam problem ceased. From that moment on, only the Republic of Vietnam alone fought against the Vietnamese Liberation Army, which became increasingly powerful165.

Colonel, Mikhail Malgin. Vietnam: The height of the war (Russian). Military space defense (2006). - The peak of the confrontation between the anti-aircraft missile forces of the DRV and the US Air Force occurred in 1967-1968. Retrieved May 18, 2009.

Gilster, Herman L. The Air War in Southeast Asia: Case Studies of Selected Campaigns. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, 1993, P.29.

David L. Anderson: The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars). Palgrave Macmillan (April 16, 2005), R.139.

zones. The two sides must create conditions for residents to live and travel freely between these two areas 166.

Secondly, the establishment of the National Reconciliation Council and ethnic unification, ensuring freedom and democracy, holding elections to form the Government of National Reconciliation of South Vietnam and strive for unification167.

In addition to these conditions, the United States had to financially help Vietnam recover as compensation for the damage it caused during the war.

The release of prisoners was envisaged.

It is clear that the Paris agreements satisfied North Vietnam and made it possible for the United States to withdraw from the war, but the Republic of Vietnam found itself at a disadvantage, its regime was called into question.

In order to reassure the Republic of Vietnam, President Nixon made a promise to President Nguyen Van Thieu that if the liberation army went to war to destroy the Republic of Vietnam, the United States would respond accordingly. This promise later had no practical significance 168.

Thus, the stage of massive US military participation in the second Indochina War was completed. He brought a lot of grief and destruction to the people of Vietnam. The United States did not gain anything in this war, but deservedly received the title of aggressor, despite the fact that it acted as an ally of one of the parties to the intranational conflict. Besides,

Reissue edition (February 17, 2007), R.191.

Frederick Downs Jr., The Killing Zone: My life in the Vietnam War (Reissue Edition), W. W. Norton & Company;

Reissue edition (February 17, 2007), R. 120-125.

L Mu Hn (ch bin), Trn B, Nguyn Vn Th, i cng Lch s Vit Nam - Tp 3. Nh xut bn Gio dc.

HNi. T. 176-177.

It turned out that the powerful state was powerless against the people’s desire for independence169.

–  –  –

From this time on, the general outcome of the war became clear. With the departure of the American Expeditionary Forces, South Vietnam's capabilities were significantly weakened. True, the United States continued to provide him with military and other assistance, but on a truncated scale. Nixon even proposed in 1974-1975. 1 billion dollars to the Republic of Vietnam, but this decision was not confirmed by the US Congress, the amount of assistance dropped to 700 million 170. US military advisers also remained in Vietnam, who helped the South Vietnamese troops 171.

2 years after the withdrawal of US troops, the Republic of Vietnam could not defend itself, their army was quickly defeated and surrendered on April 30, 1975. But during this time, many military events occurred. The Saigon army undertook several military operations, often unsuccessful. At the same time, namely in 1974, the PRC attacked and completely occupied the Paracel Islands, where the reserve forces of the Republic of Vietnam were located. The United States and its 7th Fleet also did not help the Republic of Vietnam in the problem of the Paracel Islands, although it asked for help172.

In the period 1973-1975. The volume of assistance to the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnamese Liberation Army was noticeably reduced. The total number of tons of weapons and military equipment fell from about 171,166 tons per year during 1969-1972. to about 16,415 tons per year in the period 1973-1975, but still the balance of power was still in favor of the liberation army. It was replenished with additional troops, SA-75M in Operation Lightbecker-2 (Russian) // Aerospace Defense: magazine. - 2015. - May (No. 05). -

–  –  –

Duncanson, Dennis J. Government and Revolution in Vietnam. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Vol. 223.

Cuc ng khi k diu min Nam Vit Nam, 1959-1960, L Hng Lnh, Nh xut bn Nng, 2006, Vol.34.

came from the north of the country. There was enough ammunition and equipment.

The morale of the troops was also high. Of course, after all, a victory was won over the US Army173.

At the same time, the army of the Republic of Vietnam was experiencing more and more difficulties, there were enough weapons, but funding was reduced, there was not enough money to pay officers and soldiers, and fuel shortages began. But the biggest problem for the Army of the Republic of Vietnam was the morale of the troops. After the Paris agreement, officers and soldiers saw their prospects as gloomy, pessimistic sentiments spread, and the number of draft dodgers and deserters increased 174.

The Spring Offensive was the last major land campaign of the Second Indochina War. It was carried out by the North Vietnamese army in March-April 1975. It consisted of three offensive operations: Taing Guen, Hue Da Nang and Ho Chi Minh 175.

As a result of the Taing Guen operation, South Vietnam was practically cut in two. The northern provinces of South Vietnam were isolated, and the situation quickly took on the characteristics of a military catastrophe. President Thieu was initially determined to defend all the key cities in the area, but then decided to defend only Da Nang. Hundreds of thousands of refugees from all over the corps flocked to the city (by the end of the month there were up to 1.5 million), bringing chaos to city life and interfering with the movement of government troops. By March 25, the VNA had captured Hue, the ancient capital of Vietnam, for the second time in the war. The government army units retreating to Da Nang were completely disorganized, so there was practically no one to defend the city. Hundreds of people drowned trying to swim to Qun s (QLVNCH) tp 4. NXb i Nam. Chng 3: Cc din tin trong vic hnh thnh qun i quc gia. T. 219.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), pp. 179-181.

Dictionary of the Vietnam War/ Ed. by James S. Olson N.Y: Peter Bedrick Books, 1990 VIII, R. 374.

The final part of the Spring Offensive was called Operation Ho Chi Minh. Her plan included the defeat of South Vietnamese troops on the distant approaches to Saigon, since the North Vietnamese leadership wanted to avoid the destruction of the city during protracted street fighting, as happened during the Tet Offensive 177.

Operation Ho Chi Minh began on April 26. By this time, Nguyen Van Thieu had already left the presidential post and flew to Taiwan. On April 28, VNA units reached the outskirts of Saigon. The next day, the United States launched Operation Gusty Wind, the evacuation of its diplomatic personnel from Saigon by air. Television footage of Vietnamese refugees desperately storming American helicopters flew around the world; The helicopters themselves, after landing on US Navy ships in the South China Sea, were pushed overboard to make room for the other 178.

The Vietnam War is over. According to the official Vietnamese estimate, the entire 1975 Spring Offensive took 55 days.

Soon after the Vietnamese People's Army captured the city and took possession of all of South Vietnam, Lieutenant General Tran Van Cha, commander of the Saigon administration, told the President of the Republic of Vietnam: “There are no winners among us, no losers, but we, the people of Vietnam, have defeated American imperialism.” 179.

Frederick Downs Jr., The Killing Zone: My life in the Vietnam War (Reissue Edition), W. W. Norton & Company;

Reissue edition (February 17, 2007), R.251.

Kolesnik. N.N. On the participation of Soviet military specialists in the Vietnam War (Russian). Publishing house: “Exam”, 2005, P.39.

Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), trang 319- 321, ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, T.98.

Ilya V. Gaiduk. Lin Bang X Vit v chin tranh Vit Nam. Nh xut bn Cng Аn Nhn dn 1998. Chng XI.Vol.17 Tom Polgar, a senior official at the US Embassy in Vietnam, one of the last Americans to evacuate, recorded his remarks on the same day180: “This war (the Vietnam War) is very long and difficult , in which we lost. This unique failure in US history did not stop US global hegemony. But whoever does not learn from history will certainly repeat mistakes in the future.”181 Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), pp. 179-180.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P. 181.

Chapter III Results of the Second Indochina War

3.1. General results of the war. Reasons for the defeat of the United States. The Soviet Union's Role in Vietnam's Victory The most immediate result of the Second Indochina War was the astonishing death toll. The war claimed an estimated 2 million Vietnamese civilians, 1.1 million North Vietnamese troops, 200,000 South Vietnamese troops, and 58,000 US troops. 182 Massive US bombing of North and South Vietnam left the country in ruins, and the US Army's use of herbicides such as Agent Orange not only destroyed Vietnam's natural environment, but also caused widespread health problems that persisted for many decades184. America distributed 45,260 tons (75 million liters) of toxic chemicals into South Vietnam. Tens of thousands of victims of chemical attack, half of Vietnam's rainforests are destroyed. After the war, Vietnam is one of the most polluted countries. Vietnam became the most bombed country in the history of the world185. The number of bombs dropped in Vietnam was 7.85 million tons, almost 3 times the total number of bombs used during World War II. Millions of tons of unexploded anti-personnel mines remain underground as more than 42,000 people died, 62,000 were injured between 1975 and 2014, and 6.6 million hectares of land were contaminated. The infrastructure in both regions of Vietnam has been severely destroyed. The Vietnamese government spent about 100 million a year to eliminate the consequences of mines and bombs186. There were not only economic and environmental problems, but also psychological ones: mass rape Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), R.183.

Snakin V.V. Ecology and environmental management in Russia: encyclopedic dictionary / Valery Viktorovich Snakin - Academia, 2008 - P.785.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P.799.

Robert K. Brigham, Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History, 6-9-2007, P.43.

Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P. 810.

women, for which no one was punished. After decades of conflict, Vietnam found itself with the fourth largest army in the world, but one of the poorest countries in the world187.

In July 1976, Vietnam was officially reunified and became the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), with Hanoi as its capital. Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.

However, Vietnam's military problems are not over. In neighboring Kampuchea (as Cambodia was now known), communist dictator Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge forces began an era of terror in hopes of creating a pre-industrial utopia, killing an estimated 2 million people in so-called "killing fields".

In 1978, Vietnam invaded Kampuchea to stop the Khmer Rouge.

Although Vietnam's invasion of Kampuchea was intended to end the "killing fields", China became concerned about the expansion of Vietnam's influence in the region and began a border war with Vietnam.

The Vietnam War or the second Indochina War became the largest and most important event in world politics of the second half of the twentieth century. This major conflict was resolved after decades of internal political strife in Vietnam, ended more than a century of direct colonial French and American involvement in that country, and left the Socialist Republic of Vietnam independent and united. These were important historical milestones for Vietnam and for the entire territory of Southeast Asia.

Its greatest impact on global security at the time, however, was on the self-image and strategic thinking of the United States. In 1945 Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), trang 319-321, ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, T. 79-78.

Nguyn Vn Tun. Agent orange and the war in Vietnam (in Vietnamese), Garvan Institute of Medical Research and University of New South Wales, Australia, R. 54.

When the Franco-Viet Minh War began, American leaders were confident in the superiority of American military power and democratic ideals following the victory of the US allies over the German and Japanese dictatorships in World War II.

There was fear of the ambitions and potential threat of the Soviet Union, but there was also a sense that a policy of containment and its combination of economic, military and political containment would keep America and the world safe. In 1975, when the Vietnam War ended, these sentiments in America and the Western world gave way to disillusionment, internal division, and moral uncertainty. Despite its willingness to sacrifice thousands of lives and billions of dollars, the United States was unable to achieve its goal of deterrence and the survival of a separate and sustainable ally in South Vietnam. The US mobilized 6.6 million troops (15% of young people throughout the US) for this war, the highest point in 1968 until 1969 there were 628,000 US soldiers. Along with the Army, the US Air Force mobilized 2,300 aircraft, of which 46% B-52 "Flying Fortress" with more than 200 units, 42% of the Navy's fleet of warships, including aircraft carriers, cruisers, 3,000 tanks and armored vehicles; 2000 heavy artillery from 120 to 175 mm 191.

In addition, the United States invested money in the construction and maintenance of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam to equip 1,800 aircraft, 2,000 armored tanks, 1,500 guns, 2 million guns of all types, 50,000 military motor vehicles, hundreds of ships and boats. About 11000 Davidson F.B., The Vietnam War (1946-1975). - M.: Isographus, Eksmo Publishing House, 2004. – P. 790,791.

Qun khu 8 ba mi nm khng chin (1945 - 1975), chng 4: u tranh chnh tr, gi gn lc lng khi ngha tng phn, tin ti ng Khi (20-7-1955 n cui nm 1959), trang 326- 327, ng u - B t lnh qun khu 9, Nh xut bn Qun i Nhn dn, 1998, T. 76.

Robert K. Brigham, Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History, 6-9-2007, pp. 47,48.

US aircraft were shot down or destroyed in Vietnam, 877 and other aircraft were captured by the Vietnamese People's Army192.

After defeat in Vietnam, President Richard Nixon admitted:

“Never in American history have so many resources been used effectively as in the Vietnam War. War versus a nuclear superpower with a GDP of 500 billion. dollars, with an armed force of more than a million people and a population of 180 million against a small armed force with a national total capacity still of 2 billion, an army of 250,000 and a population of only 16 million”193.

For Americans, as well as for most politicians in the world, up to this point the question is still of interest: “how did the communists win?” and there are so many answers. Some historians see the reason for the Communist victory as being that they allegedly had a superior strategy. From the very beginning to the end of the wars in Indochina, the communists set themselves only one goal: the independence and unification of Vietnam, and in the long term, the entire French Indochina. They achieved their goal by creating, developing and putting into practice a coherent, long-term and magnificent strategy - a strategy of revolutionary liberation war, which became the main ingredient of victory. So, in itself, no strategy is better or worse than another. In some cases one concept is suitable, in others another concept is suitable.

The best strategy is the strategy that best suits the actual conditions in which the war is being fought 194.

During the war, the liberation army always faced key aspects. First, the goal of the liberation army was to obtain George C. Herring. Cuc chin di ngy gia nc M v Vit Nam 1950 - 1975. Nh xut bn Cng an nhn dn. HNi. 2004. (bn ting Vit do Phm Ngc Thch dch), T.65-79.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), pp. 177-179.

Ryan Jenkins, The Vietnam War Soldier Stories: Untold Tales of the Soldiers on the Battlefields of the Vietnam War (The Stories of WW2) (Volume 39), CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (May 1, 2015), P. 182.

political control within the state. Both sides or one of them may be secretly or openly helped by foreign states, however, in essence, this is not only a political war, but also a total war. To carry it out, the forces of the entire people are mobilized and all means are used: military, political, diplomatic, economic, demographic and psychological. Secondly, all forces are used as a whole. This involves the application of all means of influence by a small group of leaders whose experience includes not only military theory, but also political science, psychology and diplomacy. Third, the strategy of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam was to mislead, words and theories were used to confuse the enemy, distract him from understanding reality and thus force him to take incorrect countermeasures 195.

To win, the US had to create a more powerful strategy.

The USA had a huge amount of money, modern armed forces, excellent military advisers, powerful allies, etc., but they did not know the situation in Vietnam well. Vietnam is an Asian country with many jungles, no one could know the terrain in Vietnam better than the Vietnamese. And this is also a lesson for occupiers such as the United States. Let us add that the US government acted in conditions where they quite quickly lost the support of their population 196.

In addition, North Vietnam received enormous support and assistance from the Soviet Union. Fraternal friendship and solidarity, comprehensive cooperation and mutual assistance are concepts that fully reflect the nature of relations between the peoples of the Soviet Union and Vietnam, which were built on the principles of Marxism - Leninism and socialism. Isaev M.P., Chernyshev A.S.. History of the Soviet- Vietnamese relations (1917-1985). Moscow "International Relations", 1986, P.123.

Tuyn tp L Dun, tp 1 (1950 - 1975), cng cch mng min Nam, L Dun, Nxb. S tht, H Ni, 1987, T.135.

internationalism. From the very beginning of the escalation of US military intervention in Vietnam, the Soviet Union and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam proceeded from the fact that this aggression was a provocation not only against one socialist country

- DRV, but against all socialist countries, that in the current conditions, strengthening the unity and cohesion of socialist countries is a priority task.

At the initiative of the Soviet Union, at the end of April 1954, a document was signed in Geneva recognizing the independence of Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia, as well as restoring peace in the region. As a result, two parts of the country were formed, separated by a conventional border: Northern Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh, and Southern, headed by Ngo Dinh Diem.

If Ho Chi Minh was a leader with real authority among the local population, supported by the countries of the socialist camp, then Diem turned out to be an ordinary puppet of the West. Soon Diem lost even the semblance of popularity among the people, and a guerrilla war broke out in South Vietnam. The democratic elections planned by the Geneva Act turned out to be completely disadvantageous for the Europeans, since it became clear that Ho Chi Minh’s victory was predetermined. It should be noted that the communists from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam played an important role in the development of the partisan movement. Soon the United States intervened in the conflict, but the lightning-fast conquest of the country did not take place.

The southern part of Vietnam was almost completely covered with impenetrable jungle, in which the partisans successfully hid. Military actions, customary and effective in Europe, were inapplicable here; the communist North provided significant support to the rebels. After the Tonkin Incident, the US Air Force bombed

"International Relations", 1986, P.128.

North Vietnam. Black phantoms were sent to Hanoi and, exerting a psychological effect on the population, destroyed mainly military targets. The air defense system in the underdeveloped country was almost completely absent, and the Americans quickly felt their impunity.

On July 22, 1954, in connection with the signing of the Geneva Agreements, Ho Chi Minh addressed a message to the Vietnamese people, which, in particular, noted: “The actions of our delegation and the assistance of the USSR delegation allowed us to win a major victory at the Geneva meeting” 198. Thus Thus, Soviet-North Vietnamese relations were strengthened even before the period of repulsing US aggression (1965-1975). In June 1964, when warships of the US 7th Fleet, the Soviet The Union strongly condemned the aggressive actions of the United States against North Vietnam and demanded that Washington immediately stop military provocations against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, which threatened to develop into a major armed conflict, with all the ensuing dangerous consequences for peace in Southeast Asia and throughout the world. The aggressor was unequivocally told that the USSR would not remain an indifferent observer in the face of the adventurist plans being hatched against the DRV and would provide North Vietnam with all the necessary assistance and support.

Help from the USSR followed immediately. To be more precise, Soviet support for the young people's state was carried out a year before the famous meeting in 1965, but large-scale deliveries of military equipment began after the official decision was made and the issues of transportation through China were resolved. In addition to weapons, Soviet military and civilian specialists went to Vietnam,

Isaev M.P., Chernyshev A.S.. History of Soviet-Vietnamese relations (1917-1985). Moscow

"International Relations", 1986, P.125.

as well as correspondents. In reality, only officers and privates were present on the territory of North Vietnam, called up to train the local military in the management of Soviet equipment and weapons. Contrary to the expectations of the Americans, who predicted that the first results of such training would appear only after a year, the Vietnamese entered into confrontation within two months.

Perhaps such an unexpected and unpleasant circumstance for the American command gave rise to suspicions that Soviet pilots, and not local soldiers, were on the enemy’s side.

However, it cannot be denied that the Americans had reason not to trust the USSR’s assurances about the exclusively advisory mission of military specialists. The fact is that the majority of the population of North Vietnam was illiterate. The overwhelming majority were starving, people were exhausted, so ordinary fighters did not have even a minimum reserve of stamina and strength. Young men could only withstand ten minutes of combat with the enemy. There was no need to talk about mastery in the field of piloting modern machines. Despite all of the above factors, during the first year of the confrontation with North Vietnam, a significant portion of American military aircraft were destroyed. MiGs outperformed the legendary phantoms in maneuverability, so they successfully evaded pursuit after an attack. The anti-aircraft systems, thanks to which most of the American bombers were shot down, were difficult to eliminate, since they were located under the cover of dense tropical forests. In addition, reconnaissance worked successfully, reporting fighter flights in advance.

Paramount. The state of health of Russian schoolchildren is seriously alarming...”

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Victory Mao Zedong above Chiang Kai-shek inspired other communist movements in Southeast Asia. In June 1948, communist guerrillas in Malaya rebelled to liberate the country from British control. The war lasted for twenty long years until the rebels were defeated.

The Indochina War of 1946-1954 was much more important. The French had to fight against the communists in it. Until 1939, eastern Indochina was divided into five regions - Tonkin, Annam, Laos, Cambodia and Cochin China (modern Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) - and was administered as a French protectorate under the general name of French Indochina. From 1941 to 1945, French Indochina was occupied by the Japanese, but, as in Malaya, a strong resistance movement arose here. Its leader was the communist Nguyen Ai Quoc, who helped found the French Communist Party in 1920 while he was working as a waiter in Paris. In 1941, he created the Viet Minh movement (also known as the Vietnamese Independence League) to achieve the independence of Annam, Cochin China and Tonkin under the collective name Vietnam. Nguyen Ai Quoc went down in history not under his own name, but under the pseudonym he took on Ho Chi Minh("Enlightened").

After Japan's surrender in September 1945, the French were unable to immediately occupy Indochina, and Ho Chi Minh hastily declared Vietnamese independence. In pursuance of this declaration, Japanese troops were disarmed, although it was agreed that Chinese troops would occupy the northern part of Indochina and British troops the southern. The Chinese government of Chiang Kai-shek did not interfere with the work of Ho Chi Minh's government in Hanoi. Moreover, it transferred captured Japanese weapons to the Viet Minh. However, the British in the south, having released French prisoners of war, were very quickly faced with the need to counteract the growing communist unrest inspired by the Viet Minh. The British did not have enough forces to restore order in the occupation zone, and they had to resort to the help of Japanese troops who had surrendered. Only in this way did they manage to take control of Saigon, the capital of Cochin China.

In October 1945, French troops began to arrive, and by the end of the year they had extended their zone of influence throughout southern Indochina, although the situation in the Communist-controlled north of the country remained uneasy. To solve this problem without leading to war, the French first tried to negotiate with Ho Chi Minh, assuring him that they were ready to grant him limited independence under the regime of Emperor Bao Dai. For the Viet Minh, such a proposal was unacceptable because Bao Dai was a Japanese puppet. Therefore, the French still had to start a war. In November 1946, they landed troops in the northern port of Haiphong and quickly captured Hanoi. However, the main part of the Viet Minh troops under the command of an experienced general Vo Nguyen Giap retreated to remote areas. Here they planned to establish permanent military bases and secure the support of the local population before organizing serious resistance to the French.

Vo Nguyen Giap and Ho Chi Minh, 1942

By this time, the French themselves had placed their garrisons throughout the northern part of Indochina and made almost no attempts to conduct offensive operations against the Viet Minh. In addition, they began to implement their plan to grant Vietnam limited autonomy under the supreme authority of Emperor Bao Dai

However, Mao Zedong's victory over the Kuomintang at the end of 1949 radically changed the current course of the Indochina War in favor of the Viet Minh. He was now able to receive significant material assistance from the Chinese Communists across the northern border of Tonkin. In January 1950, Ho Chi Minh declared his government the only legitimate one in Vietnam and immediately received recognition from the Soviet Union, China and other countries of the communist bloc. The United States and other Western democracies recognized the Bao Dai regime, to which America began supplying weapons

The Indochina War continued. The following month, General Giap attacked and captured an isolated French garrison near the Chinese border. Several more armed clashes occurred before the onset of the rainy season, which put an end to hostilities. When the rains stopped, the Viet Minh, whose forces had increased significantly during the intervening period, resumed their offensive, forcing the French to abandon one border area after another. This continued until the end of 1950. Morale in the French colony fell and civilians began to rush out of the country. In order to correct the current situation, one of the most eminent French military officers, Marshal Jean Marie de Lattre de Tassigny, was appointed High Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief of the Indochina forces.

French paratroopers fight in Vietnam

De Lattre used a new offensive strategy in the Indochina War. He decided to capture key areas and create a defensive “Line de La Tra” there to protect Hanoi and the Red River Delta. From the remnants of his troops, he formed mobile units that, with the support of airborne assault and aviation, were supposed to repel attacks by the Vietnamese. During the first half of 1951, these tactics paid off, and Viet Minh forces suffered heavy losses. But, taking advantage of the rainy season, they regrouped their forces.

Giap resumed his offensive with the start of the dry season. In October 1951, the French inflicted another defeat on him. This circumstance prompted de Latre to reoccupy the border area in order to cut off supply routes from China. As a result of this operation, the French again put themselves at risk, and the command had to use more and more forces to guard lines of communication with the northern outposts.

In November 1951, de Lattre de Tassigny, whose health had suffered greatly after receiving news of the death of his son in Indochina, returned to France on vacation. He died two months later and was replaced by General Raoul Salan, who realized that the Viet Minh could not be defeated without sending additional French troops to Indochina. However, French public opinion grew disillusioned with the Indochina War, and the government refused to send conscripts to Southeast Asia.

The Indochina War continued in 1952 and 1953, with the Viet Minh advancing and the French defending. The French position became even more difficult when the Viet Minh invaded Laos in April 1953, forcing French forces to stretch further along the front. However, the French, reinforced by American weapons, were confident that, with superior firepower, they could defeat the Viet Minh. It was only necessary to find a suitable bait for Giap to decide to throw his main forces into open battle.

By early March 1954, Giap's 50,000-strong army surrounded the 13,000-strong Dien Bien Phu garrison. On March 13, the Communists launched an offensive, gradually narrowing the ring. On the night of April 10-11, the French attempted to deploy new troops near Dien Bien Phu, but most of them landed on territory controlled by the Viet Minh.

The monsoon season began, aggravating the situation of the surrounded French. On May 1, Vo Nguyen Giap launched his final attack on Dien Bien Phu. Despite the heroic resistance of the French soldiers, their commander, Colonel Christian de Castries, was forced to surrender after several days of fighting. Only seven thousand people survived from its garrison, some of whom later died in communist prisoner of war camps.

End of the Indochina War. Areas held by the French by 1954 are indicated in purple; orange - those that came under the control of the Viet Minh

Victory in the Battle of Dien Bien Phu was given to the Viet Minh at a high cost of 23 thousand losses, but thanks to it the Indochina War ended with the defeat of the French. Peace negotiations began, and on July 21, 1954, France signed Geneva obligation to evacuate its troops from Indochina. Two Vietnamese states were created with a border along the 17th parallel. North Vietnam was led by the communist Ho Chi Minh, and a pro-Western regime established itself in South Vietnam. Laos and Cambodia also gained independence.

At the end of the Indochina War, the 17th parallel became the front line in the struggle between communism and democracy in Southeast Asia. Conflict was soon to flare up again in this troubled region. The Viet Minh victory was seen as a triumph for Mao Zedong's concept of revolutionary warfare, which he had developed over years of civil war in China and battles with Japan. Leftist rebels in many parts of the world welcomed the West's defeat in the Indochina War and raised Mao's vision as a blueprint for their future victories.

Vietnam declares independence. With the end of World War II, a powerful movement for independence began in the colonial world. Vietnam, which in August 1945 declared its independence and secession from the French colonial empire, did not remain aloof from this process.

However, France, which did not agree with this course of events, through the mediation of Great Britain and the United States, sent in its troops, which led to the outbreak of the War of Independence, or the First Indochina War of 1946-1954. The whole world watched the progress of the war between the Vietnamese Independence League (Viet Minh) led by Ho Chi Minh and the French colonial troops. On the agenda was the issue of preserving colonial empires and preventing the penetration of the ideas of communism into this region of the world.

A precarious balance of power. An analysis of the situation and the course of hostilities in North Vietnam led to a clear conclusion: by 1953, a precarious balance of power had been established between the Resistance troops and the French colonial corps. As a result of the intensification of the actions of the Viet Minh troops, the French began to lose the initiative in the fight against the guerrilla movement. The end of hostilities in Korea led to increased supplies of arms to the Viet Minh from neighboring China. This allowed the Viet Minh troops to carry out a more active fight not only on the territory of North Vietnam (Viet Bac), where their positions were strongest, but also beyond their borders.

General Henri Navarre's plan. In May 1953, the new commander-in-chief of the colonial forces in Indochina, General Henri Navarre, came to the disappointing conclusion that a second Viet Minh campaign in Laos was inevitable to support the local communists from Pathet Lao. An analysis of the situation led Navarre to the idea that undesirable consequences could be prevented by adopting a plan, the essence of which boiled down to two provisions. First, it is necessary to create a large military base on the Viet Minh’s route to Laos, impregnable to the enemy. Second, form mobile units to combat the mobile units of the Viet Minh, so that they operate behind enemy lines. The calculation was simple: the commander of the Viet Minh troops, Vo Nguyen Giap, would not allow the existence of a large enemy military contingent in his rear and would try to destroy it. This would lead to a major battle in which the Viet Minh would destroy their assault troops, returning the initiative in the war to the French.

Group of officers of the 1st Parachute
French Foreign Battalion
legion in the Dien Bien Phu area.
Spring 1945

The choice of Dien Bien Phu. Thus, at the general headquarters of Commander-in-Chief Navarre, the idea arose of occupying and strengthening a military base in the village of Dien Bien Phu, located high in the Tay Bak mountains of a strategically important northwestern region, at the junction of the borders of Vietnam, Laos and China. The operation to land six parachute battalions in Dien Bien Phu was called “Castor”. The objections of the head of transport aviation, Jean Nicot, that aviation would not be able to carry out deliveries for a long time due to bad weather conditions and due to anti-aircraft counteraction by the Viet Minh air defenses, were rejected by Navarre, who set the landing day as November 20, 1953.

Landing. The village of Dien Bien Phu was located in the valley of the same name, surrounded on all sides by limestone mountains. They reached a height of thousands of meters. The Dien Bien Phu valley was large enough to support the construction of an airstrip capable of handling large C-47 and C-119 transport aircraft. According to the plan, on November 20, 1953, the first three battalions landed in the Dien Bien Phu area and drove the Viet Minh units out of the village. Over the next three days, the number of the French garrison increased to six battalions (5,100 people). The national composition of the garrison was heterogeneous; it included both French and soldiers of the Foreign Legion, Algerians, Moroccans, Thais and Vietnamese. The first thing the paratroopers did was put the runway in order, erected light field fortifications and advanced outposts to the first line of defense on the mountain range.

Colonel Christian de Castries was appointed to command the French units in Dien Bien Phu.

Vietnam's response. The commander of the Viet Minh troops, Vo Nguyen Giap, figured out Navarre's plan and decided to block the French garrison in Dien Bien Phu and destroy it. Already on November 24, an order was given for the transfer of four Viet Minh divisions - the 308th, 312th, 316th and 351st (heavy), with a total strength of 49 thousand people, which ended their concentration in positions around Dien Bien Phu in January 1954

The massive concentration of Viet Minh troops forced us to reconsider the original point of view on the functions of the base. Off-road conditions and impenetrable jungle made it impossible for the French to conduct raids to destroy Viet Minh communications. Heavy anti-aircraft fire from Viet Minh air defenses made it very difficult for the French to supply supplies. Moreover, Navarre became convinced that the French units were not capable and not mentally prepared to conduct combat operations in the jungle one on one with the enemy, without fire support from heavy artillery and armored vehicles. Navarre, like his entire general staff, was confident that Giap would be able to pull only the forces of one division through the jungle without heavy weapons. However, he was deeply mistaken. The Viet Minh were able to literally deliver through the jungle not only 80 light guns and 40 mortars, but also heavy artillery - 20 howitzers and 20 mortars, as well as twelve Katyusha multiple launch rocket systems.

The number of French people. By the end of 1953, the strength of the French garrison of Dien Bien Phu was increased to 12 infantry battalions (10,800 people), which, despite repeated reinforcements, remained unchanged. The infantry units were supported by two artillery divisions of 24 105 mm and 4 155 mm howitzers and 4 122 mm mortars. Additionally, 10 M-24 Chaffee light tanks were deployed, and six Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters and six small observation aircraft were stationed at the airfield.

As soon as the strength of the Viet Minh troops became known, the French command moved to create a heavily fortified base at Dien Bien Phu. The main task of the French was to hold out until May 1954, when the monsoons would make it impossible to conduct any military operations. The main support was placed on the defense of field fortifications, wire fences and minefields.

Lines of defense. The defense system was built on a network of mutually supporting fortified areas (UR) with a center in the village of Dien-Bien-Phu, where C. de Castries' headquarters was located. Around it were four main missile launchers, forming the inner line of defense: Huguette in the northwest, covering the runway, Claudine in the southwest, Dominic in the northeast, and Eliane in the southeast. Each SD was divided into 5-6 defense sectors, which included a line of minefields, barbed wire, a system of trenches and dugouts. The outer line of defense consisted of separate missile defenses, located 5-6 kilometers from the center: “Beatrice” in the east, “Gabriel” in the north, “Anne-Marie” in the west and “Isabel” in the south.

Viet Minh attack plans. The commander of the Viet Minh troops, Giap, developed a clear plan for the assault on the French fortifications. First, the outer missile defenses located on the dominant heights around the valley should be attacked. The plan of attack was unchanged: massive artillery shelling 1 , after which sappers-demolitionists walked forward, making passages in minefields and barbed wire obstacles with their bodies. Next came dense columns of assault troops, breaking into enemy defenses with frontal attacks. The choice of target for the first attack was not accidental. UR "Beatrice" and "Gabriel" were on the outskirts, artillery from the center could not support them, the remoteness did not allow a quick counterattack with reserve forces. At the same time, Giap was able to create a five to six times numerical superiority in manpower in the main areas of the breakthrough.

Attack on March 13. Giap carefully selected the timing of the attack, which began on March 13 at 17.00. The date and time were not chosen by chance. It was the beginning of a new moon, which made it possible to attack in the light of the emerging moon, and, therefore, did not allow the defenders to coordinate their actions and adjust artillery fire. A decade and a half later, the Americans will call this time the “Viet Cong moon.”

Powerful Viet Minh artillery fire quickly suppressed the mortar squad's firing points and destroyed the forward fortifications of the Beatrice missile launcher. The Gabriel missile defense also came under fire and, which was a complete surprise for the French, Viet Minh artillery began to operate throughout the central defense zone of Dien Bien Phu. As a result, in the very first hours, aviation and the runway itself were completely removed from the battle. This later had tragic consequences for the French, since from then on supplies began to be carried out by air using parachutes.

Losses. As a result of a massive frontal attack, after just five hours of battle, Viet Minh units occupied all of the Beatrice fortifications. The losses on both sides were significant. The 3rd battalion of the Foreign Legion, which defended the Urals, lost 400 out of 500 soldiers. The advancing units from the 312th division lost 600 killed and 1,200 wounded.

On March 14, a day later, at 17.00, Viet Minh artillery subjected targeted fire to the Gabriel missile defense station, which was defended by a battalion of Algerians. Initially, they even managed to stop the offensive, but only for a few hours. At 3.30, already on March 15, the attack resumed. An attempt to counterattack from the central defense area was repulsed, after which at 10.00 the remnants of the Algerians were forced to retreat from the Gabriel site. During the defense of Gabriel, the French lost about 1 thousand people killed and wounded, while the attackers lost up to 2 thousand killed and up to 3,500 wounded.

The abandonment of two fortified areas led to a drop in morale in the ranks of the Thai battalion defending the Anne-Marie missile defense zone, which they voluntarily abandoned on March 17 without a fight. Thus, Giap managed to fulfill his first goal - to capture the outer defense line of Dien Bien Phu, after which the siege of the inner line began.

Fight March 30. After the occupation of three URs until March 30, a temporary lull established itself, only temporarily interrupted by individual attacks from both sides. The main efforts of the Viet Minh were aimed at preparing an assault on the Dominic and Elian guided missiles that dominated the valley, located on the eastern hills of the valley.

The assault on these fortified areas began on March 30 at 17.00 according to already established practice. The forces of the 312th and 316th divisions were moved against the four battalions defending the Urals. As a result of stubborn and bloody battles, when individual dugouts changed hands several times, by April 5, when the situation stabilized again, the Viet Minh managed to break into the defenses of the fortified defense forces, but failed to completely establish control over them. Massive frontal attacks led to huge losses, reaching 19 thousand people: 6 thousand killed, 10 thousand wounded and 3 thousand prisoners.

Unlike frontal attacks in previous assaults, the attack on the Huguette missile defense began with the systematic and persistent construction of trenches and underground passages, which created the possibility of encircling and isolating the area from the center of the base. French attempts to stop construction with counterattacks were unsuccessful. Ultimately, by April 23, the Vietnamese had established their control over the northern and eastern sectors of the UR, which led to the establishment of complete control over the airfield.

Last Stand. Late at night on May 1, Viet Minh troops launched a full-scale attack on all URs. By 2.00 on May 2, the western sector Dominic and the central sector Huguette had fallen. Fierce fighting took place over the eastern sector of Elian. Ultimately, the Vietnamese placed a mine gallery under the main fortified defense center of the sector, into which one and a half tons of explosives were loaded. 23.00 On May 6, the fortifications were undermined, after which Viet Minh troops occupied the Elian missile defense site. This completely destroyed the French defense, resistance quickly weakened, and on May 7, by 17.30, the central bunker of the commander was taken, who, together with his headquarters, surrendered. His example was followed by the entire surviving garrison of 10,133 people.

The French leave Vietnam. The defeat at Dien Bien Phu forced the French government to sit down at the peace negotiations table. On April 26, 1954, the Geneva Conference on Korea and Indochina began its work. On the night of July 20-21, agreements were signed to cease hostilities in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, and the Final Declaration of the Geneva Meeting was adopted.

On April 28, 1956, the last French soldier left North Vietnam. However, the problem of Vietnam was not solved. The defeat of France forced the United States to take its place and become the main opponent of communist North Vietnam, which led to the 1964 US intervention in Vietnam.

Plan
Introduction
1 First Indochina War
2 Second Indochina War
3 Third Indochina War
4 Bibliography

Introduction

The Indochina Wars is the name used in Western military historical literature for the armed conflicts that took place in Indochina (Southeast Asia) in the 1940s-1970s. The name itself is used quite often, but the chronological and geographical framework of these wars is not clearly established, which allows each author to interpret them in his own way.

1. First Indochina War

The chronological framework and content of the First Indochina War are most clearly defined. This war was fought by France to preserve its Indo-Chinese colonies. It began in 1945 (the return of French troops to the region and the first armed clashes) or 1946 (the beginning of a full-scale war in Vietnam). Ended in 1954 with the signing of the Geneva Agreements. The main events of the war took place on the territory of Vietnam. Also, fighting took place in Cambodia and Laos, but here they did not have a significant impact on the course of the war. In all cases, France, with the support of local allies (and, from 1950, with the support of the United States), fought against local communist rebels fighting for the independence of their countries.

2. Second Indochina War

The Second Indochina War has a complicated structure. Sometimes it is reduced solely to combat operations in North and South Vietnam, which is a simplification.

The war began in the late 1950s (beginning of hostilities in South Vietnam and Laos) and ended in 1975 (end of hostilities in South Vietnam and Cambodia). The essence of the war was the struggle of the local governments of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (with US support) against local communist insurgents supported by North Vietnam. Thus, the name combines three different wars - the Vietnam War, the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War. The last two had their own internal reasons, but gradually they turned out to be more or less connected with the fighting in Vietnam. This was due to the actions of the main opponents in this conflict. The US leadership proceeded from the so-called “domino doctrine”, according to which the victory of the communists in one of the states in the region inevitably led to their victory in other countries. North Vietnam used the territory of Laos and Cambodia to transfer its troops to the south, and also directly participated in local civil wars.

3. Third Indochina War

The Third Indochina War is not highlighted by all authors. Among those who use this name, there is no unity regarding its chronological framework and content.

American military historian Philip Davidson believed that the Second Indochina War ended in 1973 with the signing of the Paris Ceasefire Agreement. The third war, according to him, began as a result of North Vietnam's violation of this agreement and ended in 1975. However, most authors connect the Third Indochina War with events in Cambodia. These may include border conflicts between Vietnam and Cambodia (1975-1978), the Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia (1979-1989), and the Sino-Vietnamese War (1979).

4. Bibliography

· Davidson F. The Vietnam War (1946-1975) = Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975. - M.: Isographus, Eksmo, 2002. - P. 816.